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HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



A SHORT 



HISTORY OF GERMANY 



BY 

Mrs. H. C. HAWTREY 



WITH ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS 

BY 

AMANDA M. FLATTERY 



3 4i,> 



PUBLISHED FOR 

THE BAY VIEW READING CLUB 

Central Office, 165 Boston Boulevard 

DETROIT, MICH. 

1903 



iTI 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS. 

Two Copies Received 

JUL to 1903 

•J Copyrigiil Entry 

Buss OL XXc N» 
COPY B. 



--0 



H^ 



Copyright, 1903, 

by 

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 



r t" t 



KOBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK. 



PREFACE. 

It would be absurd to suppose that a History of 
Germany could be written within the compass of 300 
pages. The merest outline is all that could be given in 
this little book, and very much of vast interest and im- 
portance has necessarily been omitted. 

But some knowledge of the political events of former 
days is necessary for all persons — more especially trav- 
ellers — who desire to understand and appreciate the 
customs, buildings, paintings, etc., of any country, and it 
is hoped that short continental histories may be useful to 
many who have not time or opportunity for closer study. 

My aim in the present volume has been simply to give 
one marked characteristic of each King or Emperor's 
reign, so as to fix it in the memory; and to show how 
Prussia came to hold its present position of importance 
amongst the continental powers of Europe. 

Emily Hawtrey. 

iiL 



BOOK I. 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER I. 

The mighty Teutonic or German race in Europe did 
not begin to play its part in history until the decline of 
the Roman Empire ; but we must all of us feel the warm- 
est interest in it when it does begin, for it represents not 
only the central history of Europe in the Middle Ages, 
but also the rise of our own forefathers in their home and 
birthplace of Germany. 

To understand something of these ancestors, we must 
go back to the Origin of Races in the earhest known 
history of the World. 

The Caucasian Race was divided into three branches : Caucasian 
E, The Aryan, or Indo-European; IL, The Semitic; III., 
The Hamitic. 

The Aryan branch. The races of progress and civil- Aryans, 
ization, to which we ourselves belong, include nearly all 
the nations of Europe: Greeks, Latins, Kelts, Teutons, 
Sclavonians, beside the Asiatic races of Persia and the 
Hindoos. Our several languages show an affinity with 
Sanscrit and Zend, the old Hindoo and Persian lan- 
guages, as if springing from a common stock. 

But we know nothing; of the Kelts and Teutons until 

^ , , • . r ,...., Kelts and 

we find them migratmg from their Asiatic homes and Teutons, 
settling themselves in new habitations in the West. (?').' 



Keltic 



2 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

The Kelts were the first to arrive and take possession 
of Central Europe, probably as far back as 1500 B.C. ( ?), 
After a time the fiercer Teutons poured into Europe, 
carrying all before them, and pushing the Kelts into the 
extremities of the Western lands, where we find the 
Keltic element still existing — in Ireland, Wales, the High- 
Tribes, lands of Scotland, Belgium, Brittany and Spain — leav- 
ing Central Europe to the Teutons; and the plains of 
Eastern Europe to the Sclavonians, who soon followed 
(Bulgarians, Avars, and Lithuanians). 
The Rhine was the Keltic Border. 
Tribes^ There were over fifty Germanic or Teutonic Tribes, 

of whom the chief were : 

Goths, of Scandinavia (where Gothland, Godoland, etc., 
still mark their dwelling-places). 

In 200 A.D. they moved southwards, and are found 
as a powerful nation North of the Danube, subdi- 
vided into — 

Visigoths (West Goths), of Spain. 
Ostrogoths (East Goths), of Moldavia, Wallachia 
and North Italy. The Goths were the first 
tribe to receive Christianity. 
Vandals and Burgimdii, kinsmen of the Goths. 

Vandals, of Spain (Vandalusia) and North Africa in 

439 A.r>. 

The Dukes of Mecklenburg claim descent from 
them, and still call themselves " Princes of the Van- 
dals." 
Burgimdii, settled between the Rhone and the Alps. 
Switzerland was part of the Burgundian Kingdom. 

Siievi, or Swabians, of Spain, Gaul and the country 
known as Swabia. 

Alemanni, on the upper course of the Rhine, giving their 
name to Germany amongst the Franks. 

Thuringians, East of the Franks. 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

Franks (so-called from an ancient word meaning "battle- 
axe "), of the Lower Rhine, Belgium, and later of 
Gaul. 

Saxons, of Holstein, Denmark, and afterwards of Britain, 

Angles, of Schleswig. 

Jutes, of Denmark (Jutland). 

Marcomanni (Marchmen), first of the Rhine and later 
of Bohemia. 

Lombardii ("Longobardi"), of North Italy since the 
sixth century, said to have come from Brandenburg. 

Scandinavians, or Norsemen, of Norway and Sweden. 

Frisians, by the North Sea. 

Gepidce, settled in Hungary, 453 a.d. 

Chatti (Catti), from whom the Grand Dukes of Hesse 
claim lineal descent; said to be absorbed into the 
Franks in third century. 

Cherusci, to the South of Hanover. Hermann, "the 
Deliverer," was of this tribe. 



CHAPTER II. 



B.C. 200. The inhabitants of Germany were ignorant of the art 
of writing, and we have no records of their own from 
which to form a correct history. It is to the Romans — 
their nearest neighbors, inhabiting Italy on the south 
and Gaul on the west — that we must turn for some ac- 
count of the "Barbarian Teutons." 

The Romans were a cultivated, clever race, the con- 
querors of the world, and the centre of historical interest 
and civilization. 

From their writings we learn that the land to the north 
of the Danube — lying between the Rhine on the one hand 
and the Vistula and Carpathian Mountains on the other, 
and bounded on the north by the Baltic Sea — was inhab- 
ited by a fair-haired race of men of gigantic stature, 
broad shoulders, blue eyes, and keen, fierce looks. The 
Romans regarded these giant forms with fear, and called 

Germans, them Wehr-mdnnev (or warriors), Germans. From 
childhood upwards the Germans used every possible 
means to render themselves strong and hardy; even the 
new-born baby was plunged into cold water. The dress 
of the men was simply a short linen garment, confined 
at the waist by a girdle, or a coat made from the skins 
of wild beasts sewn together; the children ran about un- 
clothed, secure against wind and weather, healthy, active 
and bold. 

Country. The land was rich in vegetation; on all sides stretched 

vast morasses and pathless forests, in which roamed wild 
beasts — bison, boars, stags, wolves and bears, etc.; the 

4 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

air was damp and cold, for the sun's rays could not pen- 
etrate the thick foliage of the forests, of which one alone 
is known to have been sixty days' journey long, and 
nine days' journey wide. 

Agriculture and farming were indeed carried on, but 
after a very rude and imperfect fashion. The meadows 
were rich with long grass for pasture, the earth teemed 
with salt and iron, which the people soon learnt to make 
use of. 

The rivers ran as they do now, but uncrossed by 
bridges ; he who desired to cross must either make a raft 
or swim! The life was rude and simple. The inhabitants 
lived in the open air, building no cities or villages, 
for the confined life of the Roman towns appeared to 
them only fit for prisoners. Each man had his own Houses. 
Kttle house, the rude walls made of boughs and branches 
of trees filled up with mud, the roofs thatched with straw, 
the grander ones made of rough-hewn stones and some 
painted in streaks of various colors. The favorite oc- 
cupations for the men were hunting and war; children 
were trained to the use of weapons from infancy. 

Women also went to war, not so much to fight as to en- 
courage the men ; at other times the women were busied 
with the care of cattle and fields; their food consisted of 
milk, bread, meat, roots, washed down with clear water. Food, 
though very soon they learnt to brew a good glass of 
strong beer! 

Certain virtues were conspicuous in their characters, virtues. 
Truth and honor were held in high esteem; a promise 
or a handclasp could be relied upon with certainty, and 
to break faith with one another invariably incurred the 
deepest disgrace. Hospitality also was insisted upon, 
and the best that could be procured was always set he- 
tore the stranger. Love of home and "the Fatherland" 
was a strong point even in those early days. 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Faults. At the same time they cared for nothing except hunt- 

ing and war, and when not occupied with either they lay 
on mats or played at dice ; and to this day it is said of an 
idler that he is "lying on the bearskin." They carried 
gambling to such an extent that a man would stake not 
only his house and property, but also his wife and child, 
and even himself to be sold as a slave. 
Worship. They worshipped the heathen gods of Nature: 

Wodin: the All-Father, who had made the world 

and from whom twelve other gods emanated. 
Donar, or Thor: the god of thundery weather, bring- 
ing rain upon the earth. 
Hertha: goddess of the earth (earth-mother). 
Freya: goddess of love. 
The Sun: bringing all the fruits of the earth to 

maturity. 
Hulda: the moon and stars, giving hght at night, and 
with a crowd of little children's souls around her. 
Hellia: goddess of the nether world, dwelling in deep 

darkness. 
Etc. 
After-life. They believed in eternal Hfe, in heaven and hell, call- 
ing them Walhalla and Hela. In heaven they beheved 
they should enjoy perpetual tournaments and feasting, 
drinking mead out of the skulls of their enemies; what- 
ever wounds they received would be healed at night; 
whatever food they consumed during the day, a fresh 
supply would be found next morning. The timid or 
lazy would be sent to hell, where they would always be 
hungry and yet could never die. 

They also believed in elves, who appeared at night; 
dwarfs, who guarded the treasures of the mountains; 
nymphs of the woods and waters, household sprites or 
kobolds, who teased the inhabitants with their tricks, 
and giants of superhuman size and power. 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

Their religious ceremonies consisting of prayers 
and sacrifices were held in the open air, on high hills, 
or under groves of trees, and on banks of sacred 
streams. 



CHAPTER III. 

tJnity of Although there were many tribes amongst the Teutons, 

ancestry. i . i i • i • i i i • r 

and some differed widely m their tastes and habits trom 
others, it is to be remembered that they all sprang from 
one common stock, and that all owned one national lan- 
guage and religion, which caused the strong and lasting 
desire for oneness of nationahty so striking amongst the 
Germans of the present day. 
Division of 'pj^g division of classes was as follows. 

classes. 

The people were all divided into three orders: 

I. Free-horn: land-owners, who could carry arms, and 

were allowed to take part in the Councils of the 
Kingdom, and were bound to defend their country 
in time of war. 

II. Freed-men: farmers on the estates of the land-owners, 

following their lords to battle, but taking no part in 
Councils. 

III. Bond-men: or serfs, who had no rights of their own, 
did all the menial work for their masters, and were 
bought or sold as slaves. 

A number of households constituted a Community. 
Several Communities constituted a District. 
Several Districts constituted a Hundred, or Cent. 
Several Hundreds constituted a Province. 

The Communities were ruled by Priests. 

The Hundreds were ruled by Lords. 

The Provinces were ruled by Judges, who were chosen 
from the most experienced of the Lords, and rep- 
resented what would now be called " Lord Lieu- 
tenants of the County." 
8 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

A "National Assembly" took place when important War. 
affairs had to be discussed. 

In times of war all the Freed-men were called to battle, 
and marched out, led by their Priests, carrying banners, 
and followed by their retainers, armed with swords, 
spears, wooden shields, long lances, clubs, and stone- 
axes, which are still to be found buried in the earth on 
the scene of some of their conflicts. The warriors 
formed themselves into the shape of a wedge, the more 
readily to break the ranks of their enemies. Before go- 
ing into battle, songs were sung in praise of their fore- 
fathers, giving an account of their heroic deeds; then 
the shields were struck ringing together, horns of metal 
or of bison were blown, and shouting and yelling they 
rushed to the onslaught. If any man left his shield be- 
hind him in the melee he was disgraced for life, and might 
never again take part in any religious observance, or in 
the National Assembly or Councils of the Kingdom. 

JV.B. — Leaving the shield on the field, a mark of disgrace. 
Horace's Poem to his friend Pompeius Varus, liber ii., carmen 7 : 

" Tecum Philippos et celerem fugam 
Sensi relicta non bene parmula, 
Cum fracta virtus et minaces 
Turpe solum tetigere mento ". 

"With thee did I experience the battle at Philippi and swift Transla- 
flight, having shamefully left my shield behind me; when ti^n. 
valor itself was broken, and the most threatening touched the 
disgraceful soil with their chin." 

There is also an allusion to the same fact in 2 Sam. i. 21: 
"The shield of the mighty vilely cast away ". 



DECLINE OF ROME, AND RISE OF 
GERMANY. 

CHAPTER IV. 

B.C. 113. North Germany was the home of two tribes, the Cim- 
bri and the Teutons. 

In the year 113 B.C. these two tribes left their dwelhngs 
in the North, and traveUing South in quest of fresh habi- 
tations, appeared before the astonished eyes of the Ro- 
mans of North Italy, startHng them with their uncouth 
dress, wild manners, and enormous stature. 

The Romans sent an army of 80,000 men to drive 
them back, but they were overcome by the fierce stran- 
gers; and very few of the brilliant army retmrned to 
Rome to describe the extraordinary courage and daring 
of their new enemies. 

The tribes, however, did not pursue their advantage, 
but turned aside and marched off through Switzerland 
towards Gaul. Here they scattered many of the Roman 
hosts sent out to meet them, and gaining confidence 
from their successes, they turned back to make another 
attempt against Italy. Unfortunately for them, differ- 
ences sprang up between the two tribes, and they sepa- 
Marius, rated. The Roman army was under the command of 
B.C. 102. ]y[arius, one of the bravest of brave generals. He lured 
the Teutons on to the further side of the Rhone, and 
then engaged them in a terrible conflict. A hundred 
thousand Teuton corpses lay on the field of battle, and 

those who escaped death were taken prisoners: amongst 

10 



RISE OF GERMANY. II 

them their king, Teutobod, a man so strong and active Teutobod. 
that he could spring over four horses standing abreast. 

Having defeated the Teutons, Marius turned against 
the Cimbri, and overtook them in the plains near Ve- 
rona, on the banks of the River Po. Seeing that their B.C. loi. 
case v^as desperate, the Cimbri tied themselves together 
with ropes to withstand the charge of the Roman sol- 
diers, but they were cut down, and those who remained 
standing were dragged down by their companions. The 
slaughter was complete ; and the women, finding all hope 
was lost, threw themselves on their husbands' swords, or 
hung themselves on the trees, to avoid falHng into the 
hands of the conquerors. 

From this time the Romans tried continually to sub- 
jugate Germany. 

JuHus Caesar penetrated as far as the Rhine, but could juUus 
not make good his footing. Later on, the Emperor bx.^sS-ss. 
Augustus sent his stepson Drusus against the Germans. a.d?9!' j 
In his fourth campaign he pushed on to the Elbe, crossed 
it, and was advancing further when he was met by a Ger- 
man wise-woman, who said to him: "Return, O insa- 
tiable man! thy deeds and thy life are at an end!" 
Drusus was terrified, and turned back. On the way 
his horse stumbled and fell, throwing him heavily to the 
ground, and he died from the fall. 

On the death of Drusus, the Romans retreated, car- Hermann 
r3dng several prisoners of war with them to Rome, uverer." 
Amongst those who had been taken captive to Rome 
some years previously was a tall, handsome young chief 
named Hermann, of the tribe of the Cherusci, dwelling 
on the borderland of the Rhine. He was of a fine, noble 
disposition, and during his long sojourn in Rome he 
never forgot that he was a German, with all a German's 
feehngs and affections. After a time he was allowed so 
return to his country, carrying with him a thorough 



12 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

knowledge of the Latin language and of the art of war, 
together with all that was wise and useful in the Roman 
laws; but in his heart a deeply rooted desire to avenge 
himself upon his captors, and to rid his cherished coun- 
try of its oppressors. 

His watchful readiness at once took advantage of the 
first favorable opportunity; and his countrymen were 
well prepared, having banded themselves together with a 
vow to rise when called upon by Hermann. 

The Romans had raised fortresses on the Rhine to 
keep back the Germans, and had placed a governor over 

Varus. them, named QuintelHus Varus — a stern, hard man, 
who strove to force Roman manners and customs upon 
the unfortunate Teutons, by taking possession of their 
lands, and trying to crush out their independence and 
love of liberty. 

9 A.D. It was in the year 9 a.d. that Hermann decided that 

his time was come. One of the tribes made a feint of 
revolt, and Varus — meaning to march across country to 
quell the disturbance — asked Hermann to be his guide. 
Hermann readily accepted the invitation, and led Varus, 
with his brilHant Roman troops, into the middle of the 
trackless Teutoberger Forest, where the Romans could 
only disentangle themselves by cutting down the trees 
to make some sort of road ; but. were stopped again by 
fresh difficulties, and by almost impenetrable marshes, 
into which baggage, soldiers and followers sank contin- 
ually. The rain poured down in torrents, and a terrible 
storm broke over the unfortunate army. In the midst 
of the confusion, the German Confederates burst upon 
them, and though fighting desperately all day v^th the 
utmost courage, when night came little was left of the 
flower of the Roman legions; and Varus — wounded and 
in despair — fell on his own sword and died. Very few 
fugitives escaped to Rome to tell Augustus Caesar of the 



RISE OF GERMANY. 1 3 

calamity; when the news was at last brought to him, he 
fell back against the wall, crying out, "Varus, Varus, 
give me back my legions !'* 

Hermann was able to see his long-desired wish for his 
country carried out, in the establishment of the Teu- 
tonic power, and the repulse of the dreaded Roman 
enemies. His deadly hatred of his oppressors was not 
diminished by the fact that the Romans had carried off 
his beautiful wife, Thusnelda, and his son, to be led in 
triumph to the Capitol. Five years after the death of 
Varus, they again made an attempt to overcome Her- 
mann, but were defeated. However, the heroic deliverer 
of his country was not allowed to enjoy his triumph long. 
His countrymen became jealous of his honors, miscon- 
strued his motives, and finally put him to death at the ig. 
age of thirty-seven. 

A costly monument was erected to his memory, on 
the top of a mountain in the Teutoberger Forest. The 
wall called the "Heidenmauer," near the Rhine, was 
built as a protection against the future assaults of Rome, 
and traces can be seen of it to the present day. 



CHAPTER V. 



Trajan, 
io6. 



Decline of As the powcr and glory of Rome waned, the strength 
of the Teuton race increased. They grew in numbers 
and importance, and, finding their former habitations 
insufficient for their use, they gradually won from the 
failing hands of the Romans large territories, which 
presently appear as the possessions of Alemanni, Franks, 
Saxons, and Goths. 

Continual struggles took place between the rival na- 
tions. As one Teuton tribe alone would have been un- 
able to force a way into Italy, the principal tribes banded 
together in a "Volkerverein" or union, to wrest bit by 
bit from the weakened Empire. Only one or two of 
these struggles can be mentioned here. 

The Emperor Trajan, called "the Just," from his 
noble qualities, carried on wars against the Dacian Goths 
in Moldavia, Wallachia, Transylvania (Siebenbiirgen), 
and Asia Minor, which are pictured on " Trajan's Col- 
umn" in Rome. 

The Emperor Marcus Aurelius, "the Philosopher" 
— who preferred to live the life of a private gentleman 
to that of a luxurious Emperor, and who personally cared 
for the wants of the poor — made war towards the close of 
his life with the Marcomanni, and actually died at Vi- 
enna (Vindobona). 
Constan- The Emperor Constantine the Great removed the seat 

tine the r -i-» -r-. • i • • 

Great, 330. of government from Rome to Byzantmm, changing its 
name to Constantinople, and separating the Empire 
into East and West. 

14 



Marcus 

Aurelius, 

169. 



RISE OF GERMANY. 1 5 

This separation was fatal to the Romans. Internal Separation 

^ into 

dissensions arose : attention was called away from the Eastern 
Danube frontier, and the Goths took advantage of it to Western 

. . Empires. 

pour down into Italy m great numbers. 

By this time the powerful Gothic Empire extended Gothic 
from the borders of the Danube and the Black Sea to 
the Baltic, and was composed of the Visigoths or Goths 
to the west of the Dnieper; the Ostrogoths to the east 
of the same river, and the Gepidae to the north-west. 
They had employed themselves in agricultural pursuits; 
made rapid advances in arts and sciences; and had 
accepted the preaching of the Gospel, when the inva- 
sions of the Huns came to disturb their prosperity. Her- 
manric. King of the Goths, a brave-spirited man, would 
no doubt have successfully resisted them, but he was 
assassinated by a traitor in his camp, and his Empire 
seemed to totter at his death. His successor was con- 
quered and put to death. The Ostrogoths for the most 
part submitted to the enemy; but the Visigoths fled pre- 376. 
cipitately to the shores of the Danube, and implored the 
Emperor Valens to allow them to remain on the south 
side of the river in the plains, which resembled a desert, 
so much had they been ravaged by perpetual warfare. 
Their bishop, Ulfilas — who translated the Bible, and in- 
vented an alphabet for the German language — prom- 
ised on their part that they would faithfully defend the 
frontier of the Empire, and would embrace Arian Chris- 
tianity; and Valens gave the desired permission to es- 
tablish themselves in M^esia, on condition of their serv- 
ing — when wanted — in the Roman armies. 

In a similar way, when Alaric, King of the Visigoths Aiaric, 379. 
revolted against repeated acts of injustice on the part 
of the Romans, and ravaged the provinces of the Black 
Sea and the Adriatic, the Emperor Theodosius checked 
their further inroads by giving them a home in Thrace 



i6 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



395. 



Honorius. 



406 414 



410 



Gothic 
Kingdom 
in Spain. 



under Roman jurisdiction; and during his reign, the 
Visigoths to the south of the Danube remained tranquil. 

The aUiance between Goths and Romans did not last 
long. On the death of the Emperor Theodosius, the 
Empire was divided — Honorius taking the West and 
Arcadius the East. Rufinus, the minister of Arcadius 
at Constantinople, took advantage of the confusion to 
stir up the Visigoths to invade Italy once more. 

The Western Empire was practically governed by 
Stilicho, the uncle and minister of the weak boy-Em- 
peror Honorius, who lived at Milan, and spent his time 
in feeding and taming chickens. His favorite hen was 
named "Rome," and when messengers came in haste to 
tell him of the capture of the city by the Goths, all his 
reply was: "That can't be, for I have just been feeding 
her." 

Alaric, King of the Goths, appeared with an immense 
army before Asti, in Piedmont; but he was routed by 
Stilicho, and forced to retire. The defeat did not save 
the Empire. By calling into Italy the Roman legions on 
the frontier to withstand the attack of Alaric, Stilicho left 
Gaul unprotected; and hordes of Visigoths, Suevi, and 
Burgundians, crossing the Rhine on the ice, poured into 
Gaul, established a kingdom at Toulouse, and, pressing 
on to the Pyrenees, took possession of Spain and Portugal. 

Meantime Alaric — full of vengeance for his defeat 
before Asti — returned to Italy, sacked and burnt Rome; 
and would have proceeded to further violence, when, on 
his advance into South Italy, he died suddenly of fever, 
and was buried in the river Busento — the bed of the 
river being changed, in order that no enemy might ever 
discover and desecrate his grave. 

Ataulphus or Adolphus, brother of Alaric, succeeded 
him, and obtained from Honorius the cession of South- 
ern Gaul, where the Gothic kingdom held sway from the 



RISE OF GERMANY. 1 7 

Loire to the Pyrenees. Later they were forced to give 
way before the power of Clovis, King of the Franks; and 
crossing the Pyrenees, they set up their transplanted 
kingdom in Spain, with a capital at Toledo, and held 
possession of it for 300 years. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Huns. Another terrible enemy was advancing against the un- 
fortunate, sinking Empire of Rome. 

Beyond the Ural mountains and the Volga, in the wide 
tablelands of Asia, lived a nomad race of Scythians, 
called Huns or Calmuck Turks — as a protection against 
whom the Chinese built their famous wall more than 200 
years before Christ. They were a hideous people. 
Long black locks streamed over their shoulders. Their 
yellow complexions, thick lips, small eyes, filthy habits, 
and fierce barbarity seemed hardly human. They sel- 
dom left the saddle — eating, drinking, and even sleeping 
on horseback. Cooking was unknown to them; they 
ate all their food raw. They would place tough meat on 
their saddles, and ride it tender. They were clothed in 
wrappers of cotton cloth, or skins of wild beasts. The 
dirty women and children were conveyed in carts, and 
so they went forward on their marauding expeditions 
from land to land. An old saying is that "no grass grew 
where Attila's horse had passed ". Everything was laid 
waste by fire, sword, and spear. 

375. In the fourth century they burst into Europe in search 

of new dwelling-places, and, like a pack of vultures, 
alighted in the country known to us as Hungary. But 

Attiia. they were speedily off again towards the West, led on by 
their great chief Etzel, or Attiia, calling himself the 
"Scourge of God." Cities and villages were set on fire, 
and the inhabitants murdered as they ruthlessly pur- 
sued their way. They first conquered the Alani — a Tar- 

18 



RISE OF GERMANY. I9 

tar tribe between the Volga and the Don — and pushed 

on through South Germany into Gaul. The Romans 

and Visigoths for once combined with the Franks 

against the common enemy, and a terrific battle took 

place at Chalons-sur-Marne, in which Attila was con- chaions, 

451. 
quered, and obliged to flee to Hungary. 

The next year he returned, entered Italy, and robbed p^^'n^ation 
and spoiled the city of Aquileia, whose inhabitants fled of Venice, 
to the shores of the Adriatic, and there laid the founda- 
tions of the beautiful city of Venice — "Queen of the 
Adriatic." 

Upper Italy was completely at the mercy of the Huns, 
who marched on victoriously to the city of Rome. Here 
Pope Leo I. and his priests in solemn array came out to 
meet the conquerors, bringing rich presents to Attila, 
and imploring him to spare the city. He consented and 
returned to Hungary, promising his soldiers to give them 
the spoils of Rome on some future occasion ; but he died 
in the following year. His corpse was laid in a coffin of Death of 
gold, encased in silver, and enclosed in an outer coffin 453. 
of iron; the slaves who had prepared his grave by night 
being immediately slain, that no man might reveal his 
burial place. 

The fall of the Roman Empire was hastened by the Gothic 
attacks of Attila and Genseric. The latter was King ^ifaiy^ 
of the Vandals, and had been invited over from North 
Africa by the Empress Eudoxia, who was wearied out 
by the cruel conduct of Maximus, the usurper, with 
whom she had been obliged to make a forced marriage. 
The King of the Vandals hurried to Italy with a power- 
ful fleet, and seized Rome, which was given up to all the 455. 
horrors of pillage for fifteen days; and Genseric returned 
to Carthage loaded -with treasures, and carrying 60,000 
prisoners, amongst whom were the Empress Eudoxia 
herself with her children. 



20 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

This was the death-blow to the Empire of the West. 
Only Italy was left of all the former vast dominions of 
Rome; and even Rome itself was in the hands of federal 
mercenaries, who raised up or deposed Emperors at will. 
One of their chiefs, named Odoacer, King of the Heruli, 
from Lombardy (a tribe so fierce that when no longer 
fit for battle, the old men allowed themselves to be 
burnt, and the widows were strangled), demanded that 
the third part of the whole peninsula should be given up 
to his use; and on being refused, he deposed the six- 
year-old Emperor Romulus Augustulus (little Augustus), 
shut him up in a castle in the Campagna, and was him- 
476. self proclaimed King of Italy. He was countenanced 

in that position by the Emperor of the East as a deputy 
to govern Italy, and reigned till the Ostrogoths invaded 
the country; when their King Theodoric strangled Odo- 
acer with his own hands, and established the Gothic 
Kingdom in Italy. This lasted for sixty years, and only 
yielded to the Lombards, whose power ended in the 
reign of Charlemagne. 



MIGRATION OF THE NATIONS. 



CHAPTER VII. 

The invasion of the Huns had disturbed all the tribes Migration 

•1-1 .of the 

of Europe, and a general "Migration of the Nations" Nations, 

(Volkerwanderung) took place, in which the Romans nearly 300 
,,.-,, . years. 

lost province after province. 

Franks seized Gaul, gave their name to the country. 

They were converted to Christianity, 496 a.d. 
Visigoths settled in the north of Spain. They were 
Arian Christians, 369, but abjured the heresy in 585. 
Suevi settled in Portugal, became Christians, 369. Ab- 
sorbed into Visigoths, 584. 
Vandals settled in south of Spain (Andalusia) and North 
Africa, with Carthage for the capital of the Vandal 
kingdom, founded by Genseric, 449. 
Burgundians settled on each side of the Jura. Converted 

in 516. 
Lombards settled in North Italy, succeeded to the king- 
dom of the Ostrogoths in Italy. 
All these kingdoms took the place of the Roman Em- 
pire. 

The Saxons and Angles took possession of Britain, and 
changed the name to England. They were converted 
by Augustine and his companions, 596. (Christianity 
had been preached in Britain, and churches built at a 
much earHer date, and Celtic England was already called 

the Isle of Saints.) 

21 



22 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

The Magyars — a tribe of Mongols— conquered the 
Avars, settled themselves in the basin of the Danube, 
and gradually developed into the noble Hungarian na- 
tion. Converted, looo a.d. 

The Turks or Turcomans, another Mongol tribe, 
overthrew the Byzantine Empire, and estabHshed the 
Ottoman Empire in Turkey. 



i 



KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. 
CHAPTER VIII. 

MIDDLE AGES. 

The Franks had taken possession of North Gaul and Franks, 
become a very powerful, independent people. They 
were composed of several tribes, each possessing a chief 
or king, who was proclaimed by raising him on a shield 
and carr3dng him through the camp. Long flowing locks 
falHng over the shoulders was the distinctive sign of 
royalty. All the other Franks fastened their hair on 
the top of their heads. The Franks of the Rhine were 
called "Ripuarian" Franks, from Ripa^ a bank; those 
of Gaul, " SaHque " Franks, from the Saale, a tributary 
of the Main. 

In the year 481 Clovis ( = Clodwig, ancient German; ciovis, 481. 
Ludwig, modern German; Louis, French), king at fif- 
teen years of age, ruled over Belgium and Upper France, 
fixing his residence at Paris, and speedily gaining do- 
minion over the whole of France (Frankreich) . His 
wife, Clo tilde of Burgundy, was a Christian, and did her 
best to convert her husband to the faith, but apparently 
in vain. At length, however, in the year 496 a terrible ziiipich, 
battle took place at Ziiipich between the Franks and the 
Alemanni of the Black Forest in Switzerland, in which it 
seemed as if the latter must certainly win the day. Then 

23 



24 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Clovis in anguish of spirit uttered a solemn vow: "O 
Jesus Christ, my wife Clotilde says that Thou art the 
Son of the Living God, and givest victory to all them that 
believe in Thee: help me in my extremity and I will for- 
sake my gods, who have failed me, and will serve Thee 
alone". And, behold I the Alemanni gave way, victory 
remained with the Franks, and Clovis fulfilled his vow. 
He sought instruction in the Christian doctrines, and to- 
gether with 3000 of his followers was baptized. On 
hearing of the death of our Blessed Lord he exclaimed: 
"Had I but been there with my Franks I would have 
avenged the evil that was done to Him". Clovis died 
in 511, leaving his fine Frankish kingdom to be divided 
between his four insignificant sons. 

Then followed the reign of the " Rois Faineants," and 
the gradual yielding up of their power into the hands of 
the "Maires du Palais," of whom the boldest and most 

Pepin successful Were Pepin d'Heristhal and his heroic son 

687!" ^ * Charles Martel (the hammerer). 

'^^^' In Charles Martel's time the Saracens, the Moham- 

medan conquerors of Arabia, poured into Spain, and 
were even pushing their way into the south of France. 
They had already estabHshed their kingdom and religion 
at the point of the sword in North Africa, and now 
wanted an entrance into Europe. The Visigoths of 
Spain were overpowered, and the Saracens crossed the 
Pyrenees to the peril of the Frankish kingdom. But 
Charles Martel was too strong for them. In the cele- 

Tours, brated battle of Tours — one of the great decisive bat- 
1702, 

ties of the world — he put the Arabians to flight, and ef- 
fectually prevented the introduction of their dark Mo- 
hammedan faith into Europe. 
Pepin le The SOU of Charlcs Martel, Pepin le Bref, received 

Bref , 741 ^Yie hereditary title of " Maire du Palais ". His personal 
strength was so great that it is said he cut off a lion's 



KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. 25 

head with one stroke of his sword, and his ambition was 
unbounded. 

Indignant at the weakness of the Merovingian sover- 
eigns, he sent to ask Pope Zacharias: "Which ought to 
be king — the one who merely bears the title, or the one 
who really governs?" The answer being given in his 
favor, Pepin took upon himself to depose the last 
Frankish king, Childeric III., and to found a new dy- 
nasty called the " Carlo vingian". 

In a struggle with the Lombards of North Italy he ^f^f^^^^ 
became possessed of their territories near Rome, which or states 
in gratitude he presented to the Pope; and which were Church, 
afterwards known as the "Exarchate of Ravenna," or 
the States of the Church. This gift laid the foundation 
of the temporal power of the Popes. 

Pepin was anointed king in 752 by St. Boniface, Death of 
known as the "Apostle of the Germans ". 768. 

Pepin died in 768. 



CHRISTIANITY. 

Many efforts had been made to evangelize Germany Teaching 
and Switzerland. The most noted of the teachers were to^the^^^^ 
St. Columba from Ireland, and his follower, St. Gall, 
who settled at Bobbio in North Italy and in Switzerland 
respectively; also Rupert, who labored on the banks 
of the Danube, Fridolin of Seckingen, St. Beatus on the 
shores of the lake of Thun, KiHan at Wartzburg, Wili- 
brod in Frisia, etc. But there was no national Church 
established until the days of holy St. Boniface. Wini- 
fred or Boniface was born at Crediton about 680. He 
left his home in the west of England to be educated as a 
preacher at the Benedictine Missionary College of Nhut- 



26 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

scelle (Nutshalling, or Nursling) in Hampshire. His 
education being completed he was entrusted with the 
conduct of the school of the monastery; and such was 
his reputation for learning and his talent for imparting 
knowledge to others, that students from far and near 
flocked to Nhutscelle to enjoy the advantage of his in- 
struction. In the year 717 Abbot Winbercht died, and 
Winfred was unanimously elected to succeed him. 

Filled with missionary zeal, he then soHcited the bishop 
to give him a letter of introduction to the Pope, in order 
that he might obtain a commission to preach the Gos- 
pel to the heathens in North Germany. Having obtained 
this, he proceeded in 718 to Rome, where he was gra- 
ciously received by Pope Gregory II,, and was granted 

71Q. the commission he desired. In 719 he proceeded to 

Northern Germany, and prosecuted his missionary la- 
bors in Friesland and Thuringia. In 722 he was re- 
called to Rome, and created a bishop under the name of 
Bonifacius. In 747 he was created first Archbishop of 
Mainz, and then Primate of Germany. He preached 
the Gospel, boldly asserting the worthlessness of the 
Teutonic gods, openly defying their power and with his 
own hand cutting down their Sacred Oak of Geismar. 
His courageous preaching firmly implanted the fear of 
the True God in the hearts of the German tribes. Be- 
sides this, he founded schools, built the first little church 
from the wood of the Oak of Geismar, taught the people 
to drain their fields, plough the land, and improve their 
trades. In his final effort, at the age of seventy, to 
christianize the Frisians, they turned upon him when in 
the act of confirming some converts, and murdered him in 

755. the year 755. The bodies of Boniface and the clergy 

martyred with him were brought to Mainz, but that of 
the former being claimed by the monks of Fulda in Hes- 
sen-Cassel, about sixty miles distant — a monastery 



KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. 2/ 

which he had founded, and where he had wished to be 
buried — it was carried thither in great state, and his 
shrine still exists in the Cathedral of that town; a slab 
which covered the tomb now rests perpendicularly against 
the third pier of the nave of the Cathedral of Mainz 
(Mayence). 



CARLO VINGIAN DYNASTY. 



CHAPTER IX. 



Charle- 
magne, 
768. 



Desiderius. 



774. 



On the death of Pepin le Bref, his two sons, Karlomann 
and Charles (known as Charlemagne) divided the 
crown. In a few years Karlomann died, and Charles 
reigned alone over a kingdom which, by his conquests 
over the Teutons and Kelts, he increased till it included 
Germany, France, Belgium, Switzerland, North Italy 
and Spain. He suppressed the Saxons under their King 
Witekind, and subdued the Sclavs, Bavarians, and Danes 
of Jutland; conquered the Lombards of Italy, the Avars 
of Hungary, a pastoral tribe from Tartary; the Span- 
iards, Sardinians, Corsicans, Greeks and Arabians. The 
stories connected with these conquests of Charlemagne, 
such as " Roncesvalles and Roland," "Haroun al 
Raschid," "the Empress Irene," etc., read like the 
highest romance. 

Desiderius, the last King of Lombardy, had received 
at his Court the sons of Karlomann, and he now desired 
to place them on the throne of France; but Charle- 
magne hurried into Lombardy, dethroned and impris- 
oned Desiderius, and crowned himself with the iron 
crown of the Lombard kings (said to have been made out 
of the nails of the Saviour's Cross), thus becoming King 
of all Italy except Magna Grecia, the independent Greek 
Colonies of South Italy. 

On the eastern boundary of his kingdom, Charle- 

28 



CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 29 

magne, having put an end to the Avar Kingdom in Pan- Foundation 
nonia, established a Province or Markgraf ^ — an " Oes- 
terreich," from which the name "Austria" is taken — 
and the duty of the Landgraf was to keep his border 
country against the marauding enemies. 

Charlemagne's fixed idea was to form one vast con- Feudal 

° System. 

solidated Kingdom of the whole of Central Europe. 

He divided the Empire into Kingdoms, Duchies,^ and 
Counties, all subject to the one Imperial head. The 
border counties were called Marches, and the Counts 
Palatine (of the Palace) superintended the Imperial 
estates. 

Every now and then at some special epoch in history, 
one grand central figure seems to spring into life, and 
draw all eyes towards it alone as it stands supreme above 
the surrounding nations. So it was with Charlemagne. 
His calm, lofty magnificence, imposing stature and beau- 
tiful countenance are superb in the midst of the surging, 
tumultuous world about him. 

Not only did he know how to wield the sword, but he 
also cared for the welfare of his people with a fatherly 
interest. 

He erected schools,^ encouraged learning, and fostered 
knowledge in every possible way. At the age of thirty- 
two he himself began to learn the letters of the alphabet 
from Pietro of Pisa, who gave him lessons in grammar 
and Latin, and prepared the way for the further teaching 
of the celebrated Alcuin, director of the Monastic School 

^ Graf, from Rufeji, to call=a Judge who called criminals to 
account: "Comes," in Latin, the companion of the Duke: 
"Mark-Graf "= Governor of the March or Border. The title 
"Marchese " comes from Markgraf, 

2 Duke or Herzog, leader of the host, from Duco, I lead 
(Latin). 

3 Such as Fulda, Saint Gall, Osnabruck, Lyons, Tours, 
Bologna, Pavia, etc. 



30 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

at York. Rhetoric, astronomy, and mathematics were 
amongst the King's favorite studies. He tried to 
learn writing, but succeeded very imperfectly; and, in 
truth, it was not of great consequence in those days of 
few books and much oral instruction. He took great 
pains to improve sacred music, and sent for organists 
and singers from Italy ; and so eager was he to carry out 
his reforms that it is said he did not scruple so use vio- 
lence to compel the clergy to substitute Gregorian 
chants for the earlier Ambrosian liturgy. 

Charlemagne took pleasure in surrounding himself 
with the clever men of the day. Paul the deacon, secre- 
tary to the King of Lombardy, and author of a history 
of Lombardy, was condemned to have his hands cut off 
on the defeat of his master, Desiderius; but Charle- 
magne excused him, saying: "If we cut off his hands, 
who will write any more delightful histories for us?" 

Clement of Ireland; Theodulph, the Gothic Bishop 
of Orleans; Leidrad, the Bavarian Archbishop of Ly- 
ons; the German writers, Angilbert and Eginhard — 
the latter being Chancellor to the King — formed a sort 
of academy directed by Alcuin. The king presided — 
under the name of David — and each member was nick- 
named according to his special tastes — Homer, Horace, 

etc. 

With his whole soul Charlemagne devoted himself 
to his kingdom, and especially to the spread of the 
Church, founding bishoprics, giving large powers to 
the clergy, convoking Councils (of which the principal 
was that of Frankfort in 794, where 300 bishops con- 
demned the adoration of images), building cloisters, mon- 
asteries, and churches, his favorite being the circular 
Church of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) . 

He improved the army, and took a keen interest in 
architecture, agriculture, and farming, making good 



CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 3 1 

roads, and showing that he understood the commercial 
value of water by cutting a canal to connect the Rhine 
and the Danube. 

In appearance, Charlemagne was very remarkable — 
standing seven feet in height with long neck, large, bril- 
liant blue eyes, fair curling hair, and a nobly expressive 
face. His movements were firm, manly, and dignified, 
and his manners courteous towards every one. For 
ordinary wear his dress was simple, but on state oc- 
casions truly regal in its magnificence. 

Unfortunately, his moral character was not pure. 
He is stated to have had nine wives; and consequent 
disorders spoilt the domestic life of his Court, and 
showed a bad example to the nation. 

As warrior, Charlemagne was constantly employed Saxons. 
in subjecting the many turbulent tribes on all sides. 
The Saxons were among the most difficult to restrain. 
Always brave and warlike, determined to maintain their 
freedom, and with a deeply rooted aversion to Latin 
civiHzation, they were formidable adversaries to the new 
Frankish kingdom. They were also Httle incHned to 
listen to the preachings of missionaries supported by 
Frankish princes; whilst Charlemagne considered it a 
merit to enforce Christianity at any cost — by force of 
arms or punishment, if milder means were of no avail. 

In one of his first expeditions against the Saxons, 772. 
Charlemagne took and burnt the fortress of Ehresburg, 
and destroyed the famous Hermannsaule — the national 
and reHgious monument of the Saxons, commemorat- 
ing the victory of Hermann over the legions of Varus. 
The deep and almost superstitious fear of the people 
when they saw their beloved memorial destroyed, caused 
them to submit; and they consented to be baptized, 
which was, in Charlemagne's estimation, the one sign of 
obedience and civilization. 



772. 



32 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Shortly afterwards, however, on a fresh rising of the 
Saxons, they marched into Austracia (eastern border 
country of France, known also as Metz) ; and upon this, 
Charlemagne, having subdued them once more, fixed 
liis residence at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), where he 
could enjoy the thermal baths, and control his frontier 
with greater ease. 

On another occasion, when the king himself was in 
Italy putting down a revolution — raised by the Lombards 
in favor of a son of their dethroned King Desiderius — 
Witekind, the Saxons took up arms under their hero, Witekind. 
He was defeated several times by the troops of Charle- 
magne, and took refuge with the Danes. His compa- 
triots meanwhile made a show of submission, by way 
of propitiating their conqueror, and allowed themselves 
to be baptized, although many of them had submitted 
to that sacred rite two or three times previously! 

The ceremony of baptism was carried out by plung- 
ing them into the river by hundreds, and they were then 
considered Christians, and supposed to be incapable of 
ever relapsing into their ancient heathenism. 

The following year Charlemagne, taking advantage 
of the apparent peace with the Saxons, marched into the 
North of Spain to help the Christian kings and some of 
the Arab emirs against Abderrahman I., the Caliph of 
Cordova, who threatened to rob them of their posses- 
sions. All the country between the Pyrenees and the 
Ebro submitted to Charlemagne, and was enrolled in 
the Frankish Kingdom under the name of the " Marches 
of Spain". But having been defeated at the siege of 
Saragossa and not supported by the Christian Kings of 
Portugal and Navarre, Charlemagne did not push his 
conquests further. On his return, when his army, ''like 
a long steel serpent," was defihng amongst the sharp 
rocks of the Pyrenees, in the midst of narrow paths and 



773 



CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 33 

thick forest growth, the rear-guard separated from the 
main body and fell into an ambush of Gascon soldiers. 
Their leader had betrayed the Franks and led them on J"^^g 
into the gorges of Roncesvalles. Heavily laden with ar- Ronces- 
mor, they could not defend themselves, and were all 778. 
massacred, together with their chief, Rutland (Roland), 
Comte de la Marche, nephew of Charlemagne, the hero 
of many chivalrous songs and romances. 

Meantime, Witekind the Saxon had returned to his Saxons as 
country, and, in Charlemagne's absence, set fire to all 
the imperial towns and villages as far as the Rhine, but 
he was beaten back and conquered by the German troops, 
and the country was then placed under a regular military 
system of enforced conversion to Christianity, and regu- 
lar payment of taxes. These taxes were shared between 
eight abbots and bishops, who held tribunals to find out 
and punish any persons relapsing into paganism or an- 
cient superstitions. In spite of these precautions, how- 
ever, the Saxons once more attempted to throw off the 
yoke of the Franks; they confronted the armies of 
Charlemagne, only to be massacred to the number of 
4500, and their country devastated far and wide. One 
more desperate struggle ensued, when finally Witekind 
submitted, offered terms of peace to his conqueror, and 
was baptized at Attigny-sur-1'Aisne in 785. 

Charlemagne was not yet free from cares and dangers. 785. 
The Duke of Bavaria, with the Greeks and Lombards 
of Benevento, formed an alliance against the Frankish 
king, and strengthened their forces by taking into their 
pay barbarian and heathen Sclavs. Putting down the 
insurrection with a high hand, Charlemagne captured 
the Duke of Bavaria, but spared his life by putting him 
into the Abbey of Jumieges as a prisoner for life. 

Again beyond Bavaria lay the Marches of Hungary, 
in which lived the Scythian tribe of Avars, indomitable Avars. 



34 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Norsemen who were making constant inroads into Ger- 
many or the Greek Empire. Their camp or "Ring" 
was — hke that of the Huns — composed of a vast number 
of wooden huts, and covered an immense space, within 
which crimes and lawlessness of all descriptions were 
carried on without check or hindrance, and [hoards 
of treasure amassed during centuries of pillage. 
Charlemagne defeated them several times, and con- 
quered the country as far as the Raab; and his son 

796. Pepin completed their subjection in 796, when he took 

the chief of the Avars prisoner, forced him to be bap- 
tized, and carried off the rich spoils of the famous " Ring". 

800°^^*^°"' Four years later Pope Leo III. appealed to Charle- 
magne for assistance against an insurrection which had 
broken out in Italy. Charlemagne quelled the revolt 
and punished the offenders. On Christmas Day, as he 
was taking part in the festival in the Church of St. 
Peter's in Rome, the Pope suddenly placed on his head the 
Imperial crown and saluted him as "Caesar Augustus". 
Charlemagne was thenceforth recognized as King of 
Italy and Emperor of the West, reviving the imperial 
power in the Holy Roman Empire, and ruling over the 
whole of Christianity (except the Visigoths in the Astu- 
rias and the inhabitants of the British Isles). 

Standard. His banner, with the double-headed eagle to represent 
the two Empires of Germany and Rome, is still the stand- 
ard of Germany. 

When he found his end approaching, he retired to his 
town of Aachan (Aix-la-Chapelle), where he died in 
814, and was buried under the dome of the Circular 
Church. On his tomb are only the words "Carolo 
Magno ". 

* His last work was a comparison of the Latin and 
Syriac versions of the Scriptures. 



SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
CHAPTER X. 

After his death, Charlemagne's great empire passed to Ludwig the 

1 • X • 1 -r-w ^1 • 1 1 Pious, or 

his son Louis le Debonnaire — a good man, but too weak Louis le 
and gentle a prince to hold the vast empire together. So naire"8i4. 
during his lifetime he divided it amongst his three sons 
Lothaire, Pepin, and Ludwig, sons by his first wife the 
Empress Irmgarde (Ermengarde) ; but by another mar- 
riage with Jutta, daughter of Welf, Count of Bavaria, he 
had a fourth son, Charles the Bald (le Chauve) ; and on 
expressing a desire to make a rearrangement to benefit 
this son, the other three rose up in rebelhon against their 
father. 

At Colmar, in Alsace, the Imperial troops forsook the coimar 
Emperor, and went over to his sons; and for this act of 
treachery the place where it happened is still called the 
''Field of Falsehood". 

Louis le Debonnaire died of grief and distress of mind 840. 
in 840. 

■ A treaty made at Verdun between the degenerate sons Treaty of 
decided the share each was to take of their father's pos- 843^^^' 
sessions. 

Pepin was already dead, and Lothaire received Mid- Lothaire, 
die Germany, from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, 
including the Netherlands, Burgundy, and that part of 
France known as Lotharingia (Lorraine). This was 
always a borderland, sometimes attached to the Eastern 
and sometimes to the Western Empire of Germany. 

35 



36 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Louis the 
German, 
843. 



Charles le 

Chauve, 

87s. 



Ludwig the German took the district on the east bai 
of the Rhine which represents modern Germany, and' 
which is known as the kingdom of the East Franks 
(Franconia). 

Charles the Bald held the western country, called 
France, also known as the kingdom of the West Franks. 

The treaty of Verdun is important, as it finally sepa- 
rated France from Germany. It is the first occasion on 
which we hear of a document written in the new French 
language. 

But no blessing rested on the brothers. Lothaire, 
pursued by remorse, laid aside his crown, and retired to 
a monastery at Trier (Treves) . His successors died out, 
and his possessions fell partly to France, partly to Ger- 
many. 



CARLOVINGIAN LINE. 

800. — Charlemagne, Emperor of Germany and Italy and 

King of France. 
814. — Ludwig I. or Louis le Debonnaire. 
840. — Lothaire I., son; abdicated; died in a monastery 

at Trvees, 855. 
855. — Ludwig or Louis II., the German, son of Louis le 

Debonnaire. (Ludwig or Louis, son of Lothaire, 

called Emperor, but merely an empty title.) 
875. — Charles II. (le Chauve) the Bald, son of Louis 

le Debonnaire. 
877. — Ludwig or Louis III. (le Begue), the Stammerer, 

son of Charles the Bald. 
881. — Charles III. (le Gros) the Fat, son of Louis the 

German. 
887. — Arnulf or Arnoul, nephew of Charles III. 
899. — Ludwig or Louis (I'Aveugle) the BHnd, a nominal 

reign, captured and bHnded by B Granger of Italy. 



SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE. 3/ 

899. — Ludwig or Louis IV. (I'Enfant) the Child, son of 
Arnulf, died 911. Last of the Carlo vingian race. 

SEPARATION OF GERMANY EROM FRANCE. 
EXTINCTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S HOUSE. 

The Carlovinsfian family expired with Ludwig the Elective 

° ^ ^ /-, 1 Monarchy. 

Child, and from this time the crown of Germany be- 
came elective. But it should be remembered that every 
King of Germany did not become an Emperor; only 
those who were crowned by the Pope could claim the 
title "Imperator ". 

On the one hand, the Pope assumed supreme spiritual Holy 
power over the whole empire ; whilst on the other, the Empire. 
Emperor claimed distinct authority in temporal matters, 
both in Italy and Germany. This is the real meaning 
of the "Holy Roman Empire ". 

Since the days of the Roman Emperors Italy had gaiian 
never been under the sole government of one ruler. The ment. 
great cities had their own rights and liberties, and owned 
no liege lord but the noble at the head of each leading 
family. Exile meant, to an Itahan, expulsion from his 
own city ; and the idea of an ItaHan nation ruled by one 
head was only reaUzed in this century when the King- 
dom of Italy was estabhshed. 

Meantime, in France the Carlovingian race also died End of 
out. The weakness of the kin^s had allowed the North- magne's 

" " . ■■ race in 

men, or Normans, to devastate their dominions. These France. 
bold, hardy people came from the coasts of Norway, 
Sweden, and Denmark; and they seized — and have ever 
since retained — the beautiful province of France called 
by their name. 



SAXON DYNASTY. 



CHAPTER XI. 



II. 



Conrad of 
Franconia, 

QII. 



Heinrich 
I. "the 
Fowler," 
or "the 
City- 
builder," 
918. 



Hungari- 
ans and 
Wends. 



In this year the last of Charlemagne's family died in 
Germany. 

The Franks elected Conrad, Duke of Franconia, to 
succeed to the throne, but his character was unfitted for 
command ; and, although he continued to reign through- 
out his hfe-time, when he lay on his death-bed he called 
for his brother Eberhard, and made him solemnly swear 
that he would not allow the Germans to place the crown 
on his head, but would pass it on to his former enemy 
Heinrich, Duke of Saxony, because he recognized him 
as the only prince mighty and powerful enough to hold 
the sceptre worthily. Conrad died, and Eberhard 
faithfully kept his vow. 

Heinrich of Saxony was snaring birds when the mes- 
senger arrived bringing him the news of his election to 
the kingdom of Germany, and from the circumstance 
he is known as Heinrich the Fowler. He was a wise 
and able prince. Through his prudent intervention the 
rival Dukes of Bavaria and Swabia were reconciled to 
the Franks, and they were all brought into subjection to 
Heinrich I., whilst a new spirit of friendHness united the 
different States. 

Heinrich' s fiercest foes were the Hungarians and 
Wends, the ancient Sclavonic inhabitants of Poland. 
Year by year bands of these wild tribes burst into Ger- 

38 



SAXON DYNASTY. 39 

many, robbing and murdering the peasants, setting fire 
to their homes, and carrying off their cattle; yet, by the 
time the Germans had collected their forces against 
them, the thieves were off with their booty and safely 
across the border. What to do was a serious question, 
and Heinrich at last decided to gain time. He made a 
nine years' truce with the Hungarians, paying them in 
return a yearly tribute. During these peaceful years he 
raised a standing army, built several strong cities and Cities, 
fortresses, surrounding them with thick walls and moats 
to resist the enemy. In these the inhabitants would be 
safe in time of war. But who was to live in them? The 
Germans preferred their quiet country homesteads, and 
exclaimed: " Shall we allow ourselves to be buried aHve ? 
— cities and fortresses are no better than prisons!" 

Heinrich I. ordered the people to draw lots, and out 
of every ten famihes one had to go and hve in the city. 
In this way the towns were filled, and the king tried to 
make city life pleasant by organizing festivals, arrang- 
ing markets and fairs, and giving the inhabitants special 
rights of their own. 

He also instituted the order of knighthood, by which Knight- 
a man, bearing a good character under the king, pledged °° ' 
himself to follow his lord to battle, protect the weak, re- 
dress grievances, and be faithful to his religion and his 
country. It is related that when Heinrich was consulting 
with his barons on the subject, each put forward his 
view of what was required; and these suggestions be- 
came the rules of the new order. 

"The knight must tell the truth," said the Duke of 
Bavaria. 

"He must be the protector of women," said the Duke 
of Swabia. 

"He must fight for the Holy Roman Empire," said 
Conrad, Count Palatine. 



40 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

"He must do no wrong to the Church," concluded 
Heinrich I. 
Brannybor Then, being prepared for war, Heinrich turned his 
Branden- attention to the Wends, took possession of their principal 
foundation city of Brannvbor or Brandenburg, and placed a mark- 
graf (border count) over it, to hold the Wends in check. 
The Httle strip of land bordering the Elbe which he gave 
to the markgraf is called the Nordmark (north bound- 
ary), and out of this Uttle Nordmark sprang the Duchy 
of Brandenburg, and eventually the great Kingdom of 
Prussia 1 
Merseburg, The truce with the Hungarians being at an end they 
once more rushed into Germany, plundering and mur- 
dering as usual; but this time Heinrich met them with 
well-disciplined troops, and so utterly routed them at 
Merseburg that they abandoned their perpetual incur- 
sions for some years. 

Hefnrich Heiurich died in 936. 
936. 



CHAPTER XII. 

Heinrich the Fowler having reigned so nobly, the otto i. the 
least his countrymen could do to show their gratitude 936. 
was to elect his son Otto to succeed him. 

The coronation took place at Aachen (Aix-la- 
Chapelle), and the nobles and princes of the various 
tribes assembled in such numbers that the Palace could 
scarcely accommodate them. Otto was a fine hand- 
some man, with a kingly manner; and all Germany 
looked upon him with friendly eyes. As he stepped to 
the throne a great shout arose, "Long Hve King Otto!" 
"Hail to the son of our great Heinrich! " 

At the coronation banquet the princes themselves 
waited upon him. 

Duke Eberhard of Franconia held the office of steward 
or carver. 

Duke Hermann of Swabia was cup-bearer. 

Duke Giselbert of Lorraine was chamberlain. 

Duke Arnulf of Bavaria took charge of the horses and 
stable, as marshal, etc. 

This is the origin of these offices held at the Court by 
the great princes ever since. 

Otto's wife, Queen Edith, sister of Athelstan and 
Edmund (Eadmund) of England, was crowned at the 
same time. 

Otto I. held the sceptre with a firm grasp, and fought 
successfully against his foes both in and out of his do- 
minions, and did much for the spread of Christianity. 

The Danes, and, later on, the Poles, were forced to Sciavonian 
acknowledge his sovereignty. The Magyars of Hun- 
gary, however, caused him much annoyance by entering 

41 



42 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Lechfelde, 
955. 



Waivode 
Geisa, 
Steffan the 
Pious, I St 
King of 
Bohemia, 
970. 



Holy 

Roman 

Empire. 



Otto II., 
973. 

House of 
Babenberg. 
Otto III., 
983. 



Heinrich 
II., 1002. 



Germany in greater numbers than ever. With over- 
whelming pride they boasted, " Our horses shall drink 
of our enemies' lakes and rivers; and if the sky were to 
fall, or the earth cease to exist, still no harm could hap- 
pen to us r^ 

They advanced upon Augsburg, where Otto met them 
and gave them such a lesson upon the battlefield of Lech- 
felde that it was long before the Hungarians dared to 
show their faces again in Germany. Obhged to remain 
quiet, they began to take steps towards agriculture and 
the general improvement of their lands: their Duke 
(Waivode) Geisa embraced Christianity; and the spread 
of the true faith under his son Steffan the Pious, did 
much towards rendering the Hungarians a steady, peace- 
ful people. 

Poland also became Christian about this time. Otto 
the Great undertook several wars against Italy, where 
the abdication of Lothaire II., King of Italy, had left great 
confusion. He married Lothaire' s widow, Adelheid, 
and was crowned at Milan with the iron crown of Lom- 
bardy as King of Italy, and in Rome by the Pope as the 
Emperor of Rome. His marriage with Adelheid gave 
Otto a claim to the crown of Italy, and bound the two 
countries more closely together in the union known as 
the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted all through the 
middle ages. 

Otto died in 973, aged seventy- three. 

Successors of Otto I. 
Otto II. (the Bloody), in whose reign Austria (the Oester- 
reich) came into the Prankish House of Babenberg. 
Otto III. (the Red), poisoned at the age of twenty-two 

in Rome. 
Heinrich 11. (the Saint, or the Lame), died 1106. 

With the death of Heinrich II., the Saxon Dynasty 
closes. 



HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 
CHAPTER XHI. 

On the extinction of the Saxon House, the electors Franconian 
chose Conrad 11. (the Salic), Duke of Franconia, as Em- conraFii., 
peror. He governed well, and firmly suppressed " Fist- ^°^'^' 
right" (the law of might), but was much harassed by the 
roving bands of robber knights who disturbed the coun- 
try. His territories were increased by the death of Ro- 
dolf III., the last King of Burgundy, who bequeathed 
his possessions, comprising the beautiful lands of Bur- Union of 
gundy, Switzerland, and Southern France,to his nephew, w?t?"^^^ 
Conrad IL, so that we find Burgundy figuring as part ®^°^^"y- 
of the German Empire, and Conrad conceiving the de- 
sire of securing the throne to his own family, and form- 
ing an hereditary Empire independent of the great lords. 
This idea was upheld firmly by his son and successor, 

Heinrich III. (the Black), a powerful, and ambitious Heinrich 
prince like his father. He was a zealous supporter of ^^^" ^°'^^' 
the Church, and instituted the "Truce of God," by 
which no army was to serve from Saturday to Monday, 
nor at any times of the Church festivals. But he found 
all his activity and strength were needed to pacify Italy, 
and reduce the affairs of the Papacy to some sort of 
order. 

There were no less than three Popes reigning at Rome Degener- 
at the same time, all recognized by the Church — Bene- PopesV^^ 
diet IX., Gregory VI., and Sylvester III. The first — 
elected at the age of ten years — had become an unbri- 

43 



44 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

died tyrant, given up to crime, murder, and excess; and 
only appeasing the wrath of the people by sharing his 
palace and revenues with the two other claimants to the 
Pontificate. To put an end to these scandals, Heinrich 
III., in right of his authority over the Holy Roman 
Empire, convoked a Council, deposed the three unwor- 
1048. " thy priests, and placed in their room a German bishop, 
Leo IX., whose first act was to crown Heinrich Emperor 
of Germany. Heinrich elected in the same manner 
three Popes in succession, all of his own nation, and 
applied the most vigorous efforts to restore order 
amongst the clergy. 

Ecclesiastical life had degenerated sadly during the 
centuries of anarchy following the noble Charlemagne's 
death. The highest positions in the Church {e.g., Abba- 
cies, Bishoprics) were purchased for children of six and 
eight years old; and whilst waiting for their majority, 
the parents received the revenues accruing from the 
benefices. In the monasteries the coarsest and most 
depraved manners were prevalent. 

Heinrich III. and Leo IX. combined to put down " sim- 
ony," or the traffic of benefices, which had grown to 
such proportions as to be considered one of the most 
abundant sources of wealth for the kings of various 
countries; but in no place were there such crying scan- 
dals to be met with as in Rome itself. The Emperor 
also helped the Pope against the Normans — the power- 
ful and ambitious descendants of Tancred de Haute- 
ville — who finally made a compact with Leo IX., and 
established themselves in Southern Italy and Sicily; 
they proved themselves firm supporters of the Papal See, 
giving the Pope in return a sovereign right over vast 
territories to which he had in fact no claim. 

Under Leo IX. a definite rupture took place between 
the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Church of 



HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 45 

Rome; and from this time the supremacy of the Pope Separation 
became an incontestable fact in the eyes of the Western thelSri- 

arch and 
nations. the Pope. 

No one, however, had yet comprehended the possible Hiide- 
powers of the Papal See so clearly as did a simple monk 
named Hildebrand, the son of a carpenter at Savona, in 
Tuscany. Imphcated in the disgrace of Gregory VI., 
his protector, he retired to the Convent of Cluny, in 
France, where he became remarkable for the severity 
of his manners and principles. Leo IX. made his ac- 
quaintance when passing through Cluny, on his way to 
receive the Papal dignity, and persuaded Hildebrand to 
accompany him to Rome. On the way the monk per- 
suaded Leo that his election, having been made by a 
temporal prince and not by the clergy, was invalid, and 
even criminal. So Leo, putting aside his Papal robes, 
entered Rome with his travelling staff in his hand and 
bare feet, presenting himself in this guise before the 
people, for his election to be ratified by them. 

From this time Hildebrand, as the confidant of Leo 
IX., really became the soul of the Papacy; and in order 
to raise its power above that of the imperial princes, he 
had recourse to two principal means : — 
ist — The introduction of celibacy in order to reform the ceUbacy. 

clergy; and, 
2nd — The establishment of the independence of the investiture, 
clergy, by forbidding them to receive investiture 
for their benefices from the hands of the laity. 
As all lands had been subject to the great feudal sys- 
tem, ecclesiastical dignitaries, like other vassals, were 
bound to receive "investiture" for their domains from 
the hand of the sovereign or liege lord upon whom their 
estates depended; and, if necessary, to supply him in 
return with mihtary aid in time of need. 

No one at that period thought it possible to separate 



46 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

an ecclesiastical function from the rich territorial pos- 
sessions which were joined to it; and as these could be 
held only by the ceremony of investiture, the nomina- 
tion of bishop or abbot became practically dependent on 
the sovereign or liege lord, and gradually "simony" was 
openly practised to obtain the envied positions. To 
overthrow this system was to strike at the root of the 
entire feudal system, and to seize upon a third or more 
of the territories of the whole of Europe. 
Sacred Under Nicholas II., one of the successors of Leo IX., 

College of ' , , ' 

Cardinals. Hildebrand succeeded in obtaining a decree by which 
the election of the Pope was given into the hands of an 
electoral body of the clergy called Cardinals, who, on 
the death of a Pope, were to assemble a conclave, and 
from amongst their number to elect another Pope to fill 
the vacancy, quite independent of the Empire and the 
temporal princes. 

1042. Notwithstanding the busy Hfe led by Heinrich III. — 

whose conquests, among other military achievements, 
included that of Bohemia in 1042 — he still found time to 
support with hearty zeal the efforts made by Hildebrand 
to reform the Papacy. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

When Heinrich III. died in the prime of manhood, too ^^"[j,*^^ 
soon for the welfare of his kingdom, the grief of his sub- 
jects was great. His son and successor, Heinrich IV., 
was only a child of six years old. The Empress Agnes, 
Mddow of Heinrich HI., acted as regent for her son Hein- 
rich IV. She appointed the Bishop of Augsburg as his 
tutor; but this angered Archbishop Hanno of Koln 
(Cologne), who would willingly have been tutor him- 
self; and, aided by his Saxon adherents, he carried off 
the boy bodily in a crafty manner. His people decoyed 
Heinrich to the Rhine, where the bishop's barge lay. 
The prince begged to be " shown over the pretty ship ". 
This was exactly what the Archbishop wanted. As 
soon as they were on board, he sailed off with him to- 
wards Koln; the prince sprang actually into the water 
in his endeavor to escape, but was again captured and 
brought to Koln. The mother, full of grief, took refuge 
in a nunnery in Rome. Hanno treated the prince so 
severely that he ran away to Archbishop Adalbert of 
Bremen. If Hanno was too strict, Adalbert was too 
easy, and between them the boy grew up thoroughly 
spoilt. Adalbert excited in his heart the deepest hatred 
against the Saxons, who had taken Hanno's part against 
him, and this hatred was destined to produce bitter fruits 
afterwards. 

The lords were so much dissatisfied with the state of 
things that they decided to raise Heinrich to the throne 
as soon as possible; and the spoilt, petted boy was de- 
clared of age and crowned at sixteen. 

47 



48 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Heinrich began his reign with capricious and despotic 
actions, treating his Saxon subjects with special severity. 
They took up arms in return, destroyed the beautiful 
castles Heinrich the Fowler had built, and scattered the 
bones of the kings who had been buried in the "Harz- 
burg". Heinrich came with a large army against them, 
overthrew them, and brought the Saxon lords before a 
powerful tribunal, which condemned them as contuma- 
cious. The Saxons thereupon complained to the Pope, 
The Pope was the same powerful and ambitious Hilde- 
brand who — with the consent of Heinrich IV. — had 
been raised to the Papal throne in 1073, under the title 
Gregory q{ Gregory VII. But already differences had sprung 
up between himself and the Emperor. At a Synod as- 
1075. sembled in 1075, Gregory VII. called upon all the 

princes of Europe to give up the right of investiture and 
simony, under pain of excommunication. 

Heinrich IV. having refused his consent to this deci- 
sion of the Pope, and now being brought forward by the 
Saxons as having treated them cruelly and tyrannically, 
Gregory VII. summoned him to Rome, to reply to the 
charges made against him. Not only did Heinrich refuse 
to comply, but he asserted his right to depose the Pope. 
Gregory promptly excommunicated him. At this the 
German lords began to look askance at their sovereign. 
It did not please them that their Emperor should be in 
such a humiliating position, and they declared that Hein- 
rich must resign the throne unless the ban was removed 
within a year. 

Heinrich, seeing the Pope strengthened by the 
assistance of Robert Guiscard and his brave Nor- 
mans, lost courage at the hopeless idea of attacking 
him personally, and thought it advisable to seek rec- 
onciliation. 

Accompanied by his faithful wife. Bertha of Susa, his 



HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 49 

friend Frederic von Biiren, and only a few of his knights, 
he started off in mid-winter to make the toilsome journey 
across the snow-covered Alps into Italy. After a week 
of painful and difficult travelhng, they reached the Castle 
of Canossa in the Apennines, near Reggio in North Italy, 
belonging to Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, Heinrich's 
own cousin, with whom Gregory was staying. At the 1^77 
entrance of the castle Heinrich's sword and knightly 
arms were taken from him, and he was clad in the white 
linen dress of a penitent. For three days the Emperor 
was kept waiting in the snowy courtyard, in his thin linen 
dress, with bare head and feet. On the fourth day the 
Pope allowed the half-starved and frozen Emperor to be 
summoned, and after exacting some hard stipulations, 
he readmitted him to the Church.^ 

On Heinrich's return home, he found his brother-in- 
law, Rodolf of Swabia, nominated to fill his place: but 
certain of the lords, feeling that he had been too hardly 
used, returned to their allegiance, and with a hastily ral- 
lied army Heinrich IV. began a war with Rodolf which 
lasted three years. 

At the battle of Gera in Thuringia, when Rodolf at Gera. 
last lay on the field of battle, wounded to death by God- 
frey de Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, a descendant of 
Charlemagne, he was shown his own right hand, which 
had been cut off. "I am well punished," he exclaimed, 
"for raising it against my liege lord ". 

Heinrich IV. gave the Duchy of Swabia and the hand Frederic 

° -^ von Buren. 

of his daughter Agnes to his devoted friend, Frederic, 

Count von Biiren, from whom sprang the illustrious 

^ An obelisk is erected at Harzburg, close to Heinrich IV. 's 
old castle, on which is inscribed Bismarck's saying, May 14th, 
1872: <' We do not mean to go to Canossa," referring to the way 
in which the Emperor Heinrich IV. had been humbled, j 



50 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

house of Hohenstaufen, and whose descendants have 
been amongst the finest of the German princes. 

Siege of The Emperor never forgave the Pope for the treat- 

1084.' ment he had received at his hands; and in 1084 he 
marched into Italy, besieged Rome, and set up an anti- 
Pope, to the joy of the ItaHans, who were heartily tired 
of Gregory's haughty tyranny. Gregory fled to Salerno 
— the home of the Norman Guiscards — and died the 
next year in exile, saying with his last breath; "I have 
loved righteousness and hated iniquity, and therefore I 
die in exile ". 

The end of Heinrich's reign was deeply embittered 
by quarrels with his sons. 

1089, The Countess Matilda of Tuscany had married, as 

"^^ * her second husband, Welf II., Duke of Bavaria; but 
she separated from him after six years, and turned her 
interests entirely against the German Empire, encour- 
aging the revolt of the Princes Conrad and Heinrich 
against their father^ and finally granting a deed of gift of 
all her estates to the Papal See. 

1093. The princes were further instigated to take up arms 

against the Emperor by Pope Clement III., who again 
placed Heinrich IV. under the ban of excommunication. 
The youngest son, Heinrich, went so far as to take his 
father prisoner, and shut him up at Bingen on the 
Rhine. The Diet of Mainz (Mayence) required him to 
abdicate. In vain he threw himself on his knees before 
his unnatural sons, and besought pity on his grey hairs. 
He was stripped of his crown and imperial robes, and 
forced to sign a deed of abdication. 

He escaped from his captors and fled to Liittich 
(Liege), where he became lay reader in a church; 

1 106, but to such poverty was he reduced that he was even 

obUged to sell his boots for bread. He died of a broken 
heart, and was buried in the cathedral ; but so keen was 



HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 5 1 

the Pope's hatred that he caused the body to be disin- 
terred, and for five j'^ears — until the expiration of the in- 
terdict — ^it remained in an unconsecrated chapel on a 
little island in the Maas. It was finally laid with great 
pomp in the Cathedral of Speier (Spires). 



CHAPTER XV. 

Heinrich In arming the son against the father, the Pope, no 

v., called ^, ,iiii ii- • in 

the doubt, thought he had succeeded m securing the sub- 

1106. * jection of Heinrich V. ; but his despicable poKcy turned 
against himself. 

Investiture. As soon as Heinrich found himself securely estab- 
lished on the throne, he firmly refused to give up the 
rights for which his father had fought. He claimed 
the right of investing by the ring and the cross, founding 
it upon the fact that his ancestors for 300 years, since 
the days of Charlemagne, had all exercised the same 
rights. 

Then he marched into Italy, and demanded that Pope 
Pascal II. should crown him Emperor. But the Pope 
would not yield up the question of investiture; and he 
even went so far as to offer to renounce the claims of his 
bishops to their lands and feudal rights, on condition 
that Heinrich would, in his turn, consent to abandon 
investiture. Heinrich consented; but the bishops were 
furious, and vehemently opposed the whole arrange- 
ment, which would entirely deprive them of the luxu- 
ries and importance which they had so long enjoyed. At 
length the Emperor cut short the business by carrying 
off the Pope in person, in spite of the resistance of the 
Roman people; he insisted on retaining the rights of 

1 1 14. investiture, and forced the Pope to crown him in 11 14. 

The matter did not, however, end there. At the 
next Synod the Pope declared that only force had com- 

52 



HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 53 

pelled him to accede to the Emperor's demands, which 
were against his conscience, and that he annulled all 
promises extorted from him by Heinrich V. 

At the same time the Saxons and other German no- 
bles rose in revolt against the Emperor, and civil war 
once more desolated the country. 

In 1 1 15 the Countess Matilda of Tuscany died, leav- 1115. 
ing her estates to the Pope, to the prejudice of her natu- 
ral heirs; but Heinrich V., considering her as a vassal 
of the Empire, was most indignant, and in revenge and 
to assert his superiority he took possession of Rome and 
drove out Pascal 11. , who took refuge with the Normans 
in South Italy. 

After some years of fighting and quarrelling, the con- Concordat 

1 1 • iTi- of Worms, 

tending parties at last agreed to settle their differences 1122. 
at a Concordat at Worms, when Heinrich V. ended the 
vexed question of investiture by abandoning to the then 
reigning Pope, Calixtus II., the right to bestow the ring First 
and the staff and to nominate to benefices, whilst he re- Council, 
tained his control as Emperor over all landed territories. 

By this agreement he conceded to the Church the right 
of election and consecration, with only one condition — 
viz., that some of his emissaries should be present at the 
ceremony: but as the latter were allowed no power of 
preventing such an election, the Emperor had virtually 
exchanged his ancient right of nomination for a simple 
form of affirmation. 

The Church, in making the exchange, practically 
gained everything; the temporal power was vanquished, 
and the great scheme of Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) was 
achieved. 

Heinrich V.'s example did not, however, induce the 
other sovereigns of Europe to concede their rights in the 
same way. 

One of those who refused was his father-in-law, 



54 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Empress Henry I. of England, whose daughter Maud married 
MaSida. first Heinrich V., and after his death Geoffroi, Count 

of Anjou. 
1 125. It is said that Heinrich V. left his palace late one night 

and was never heard of again; but at any rate he left no 
children to succeed him, and his estates passed away to 
his two nephews, Frederic and Conrad of Hohenstaufen. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

The Concordat of Worms had put an end to the quar- Jf^^jjs 
rel about investiture; but the will of the celebrated 
Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, became the cause of in- 
terminable disputes between the Papal See and the 
Empire. 

On the death of Heinrich V., his nephew, Frederic 
von Hohenstaufen, Duke of Swabia, presented himself 
as a candidate for the throne; but, at the instigation of 
the clerical party, Lothaire, Duke of Saxony, was 
elected as Lothaire II. 

In order to secure his own position on the throne, 
the new Emperor commanded the Dukes Frederic and 
Conrad to give up the lands lately bequeathed to them 
by their uncle, Heinrich V. This they refused to do, 
and desolating wars ensued for many years. 

Lothaire II. had recourse to a device for humbHng his 
rival which turned out to be the cause of a hundred years 
of strife and bloodshed. By giving his daughter in mar- 
riage to Heinrich the Proud, the Guelphic Duke of Ba- 
varia, Saxony and Brunswick, he withdrew the support 
of this powerful prince from Frederic of Hohenstaufen. 
Besides this, he added the vast dominions of his son-in- 
law and the rich territories of the Countess Matilda, 
already received from Pope Innocent II., to the imperial 
domains, so that his rule now extended from the Tiber 
to the Elbe. 

Then began the cruel wars between the Welfs 

55 



^6 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

(Guelphs), friends of the Pope, and the Waibhngers 
(Ghibellines) of Hohenstaufen, the imperial partisans. 
The name of WaibUnger is taken from an estate. 
1 137. After two years of warfare and two expeditions into 

Italy, Lothaire died suddenly in Tyrol, in the year 
1137- 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Frederic von Buren— the knierht who accompanied Conrad 

. . ni., 1 138. 

Heinrich IV. to Canossa, and afterwards married his 
daughter Agnes — had built himself a castle on a conical 
hill over the Neckar, and styled himself "von Hohen- 
staufen ". His son, Conrad III., was elected first Em- 
peror of the Hohenstaufens. (It is to be observed that 
the first Emperors of three lines — Saxon, Franconian, 
and Swabian — were each named "Conrad".) 

On the death of Lothaire, his father-in-law Heinrich Wars 

' between 

the Proud of Bavaria believed himself so certain of the houses of 

Welf and 

Empire that he seized the crown jewels. But the Ger- Hohen- 

11- • ^ • • 11 J staufen, or 

mans feared his overweemng ambition, and elected Gueiphs 
Conrad III., von Hohenstaufen of Swabia, nephew of eiiines. 
Heinrich V. (but he was never crowned Emperor). One 
of Conrad's first acts was to summon his rival to give up 
one of his two duchies, Bavaria or Saxony. On his re- 
fusing to comply, Conrad declared Henry the Proud an 
outlaw, and confiscated his estates — giving Bavaria to 
Leopold, Markgraf of Austria, and Saxony to Albert 
the Bear, leaving only Brunswick to Heinrich the Proud. 
However, on the death of Heinrich, the Saxons rose in 
favor of his young son, Heinrich the Lion, and the 
Emperor conceded to him the Duchy of Saxony for his 
Ufetime.^ 

^ The dominions of Heinrich the Lion in Saxony and Bavaria 
were curtailed by the cession of the Duchies of Brandenburg and 
Austria to the Emperor, who made them fiefs of the Empire, and 
thus laid the foundation of the afterwards independent mon- 
archies of Prussia and Austria . 

57 



58 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

In Bavaria, Welf, brother of Heinrich the Proud, try- 
ing to defend the duchy from faUing into the hands of 
his enemy, successfully repulsed the attacks of Leopold, 
Markgraf of Austria, but was himself totally defeated 

Weinsberg. by the Emperor Conrad at the battle of Weinsberg. It 
was in this battle that the names of "Guelph" and 
"Ghibelline" served for the first time as rallying cries 
for either party. The story goes that upon the surren- 
der of the city, Conrad gave permission to all the women 
to leave the place, taking with them as much property as 
each could carry. The gates opened, and a strange 
procession came out — each woman carrying her hus- 
band on her back. The GhibelHnes wished to prevent 
their prisoners from escaping thus; but Conrad would 
not allow any molestation, and called the castle hill 
"Weiber-treue" (woman's faithfulness). 

1 147. Conrad III. took part in the second crusade, preached 

by the holy Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux. The Cru- 
saders were defeated, and Conrad returned home; but 
died very shortly afterwards, nominating as his successor 
his nephew, Frederic of Swabia (Hohenstaufen), who 

1 152. was unanimously elected at Frankfort. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

Frederic I. — surnamed by the Italians Barbarossa, Frederic 
on account of his red beard — was a brave, proud man. ossa, 1152 
It was long since Germany had had so powerful and 
determined a man on the throne. Thoughtful in draw- 
ing up his plans, impetuous in carrying them out, with 
an iron will that would brook no opposition, and cruel 
and violent when his passions were roused, he set him- 
self to raise Germany from the low position into which 
it had sunk under his predecessors, and to render it once 
more one of the dominant continental powers. He con- 
sidered himself superior to any other European sover- 
eign ; and one of the first acts of his reign was to compel 
the Kings of Denmark and Poland to do homage to him. 
He conferred the title of king on Ladislas of Bohemia, 
and restored the former supremacy of the Empire over 
the kingdom of Burgundy. He desired, of course, to 
estabhsh a footing on the south of the Alps, and for this 
purpose he undertook six campaigns in Italy. But in 
order to assure the tranquillity of Germany in his ab- 
sence, he re-established his cousin and friend, Henry the 
Lion, in possession of Bavaria as well as Saxony; and 
promised to give Tuscany to the old bhnd Welf, brother 
of Heinrich the Proud. The latter had been living most 
extravagantly on his estates in Swabia, his debts being 
paid by the Emperor — his nephew, Heinrich the Lion, 
refusing to have anything to do with his spendthrift 
uncle. This laid the foundation of the quarrel between 
Heinrich and the Emperor at a later period; as Heinrich 

59 



6o 



HISTORY OF GERMANY, 



First 

Campaign, 

II54- 
First 
Siege of 
Milan. 



Arnold of] 

Brescia, 

1155. 



Second 
Campaign, 
1 158. 
Second 
Siege of 
Milan. 



never forgave his uncle Welf for leaving his possessions 
on his deathbed to Barbarossa, out of gratitude for what 
had been done for him. 

Frederic's first campaign in Italy began in 1154. The 
city of Milan v;^as at the head of a league to oppose Ger- 
many; so Frederic marched against it, ravaged the 
country, and besieged Tortona, which only succumbed 
after sixty-two days of desperate fighting. After crown- 
ing himself at Pavia with the iron crown of Lombardy, 
Frederic pursued his way to Rome, where he was well 
received by Pope Adrian IV. But his cruel disposition 
showed itself in his delivering up the reformer, Arnold 
of Brescia, to be murdered by the Pope, who caused him 
to be burnt to death, and scattered his bones in the Tiber. 
Frederic consented, after some reluctance, to kiss the 
Pope's foot, and in return was crowned Emperor in St. 
Peter's. Fever broke out, however, amongst his fol- 
lowers, and Frederic returned almost alone to Germany. 

During the three years that he was detained in Ger- 
many, his party in Italy turned against him. Adrian IV. 
betrayed his interests, giving out that he only considered 
the imperial crown as a benefice to be conferred by the 
generosity of the Papal See. At the same time, the 
Milanese, braving the anger of Barbarossa, set about 
rebuilding Tortona — even the nobles and the merchants 
taking their turns as masons and soldiers, so that in a 
few weeks fresh houses and walls were constructed as a 
sufiicient defence against future attacks. Frederic re- 
entered Italy, and a second siege was laid to Milan in 
1 1 58, when the Milanese were forced by famine and 
pestilence to yield to the Emperor the regal rights of 
coining money, levying contributions, and exacting 
custom-house duties, etc. Frederic then, with the con- 
sent of the Diet, introduced into each town a "podesta" 
or magistrate, charged to administer justice in his name. 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 6 1 

It was this arrangement of Frederic's, to replace their 
own consuls by officers in the pay of the crown, which 
roused the Milanese to take up arms against him once 
more. In revenge the imperial troops ravaged their 
country and burned their crops, but were not sufficiently 
strong in numbers to force an entrance into the city. 
During this time, Adrian IV. (the English Nicholas 
Breakspear) died, and was succeeded by Pope Alexander 
III., a pronounced enemy of Barbarossa, who excom- 
municated Frederic, and released the Italians from their 
oath of fidelity. 

With a new army from Germany, Barbarossa laid Third 
siege to Milan in 1162, declaring that his crown was up. 
worthless to him as long as this contumacious city re- siege of 
sisted him. The inhabitants — surrendering by force of 
want of supplies — begged for pardon from the Emperor 
in the dress of penitents, with bare feet, ropes round 
their necks, and a crucifix in their hands; they even gave 
up their celebrated " Caroccio," a crimson chariot drawn 
by oxen, and surmounted by the image of their patron 
saint, St. Ambrose, and the banner of the city. They 
were ordered to quit the town, when the largest and 
most beautiful part of the city was entirely destroyed, 
strewn with salt, and ploughed over as waste land. 

Exasperated by the cruelty and violence of the im- League of 
perial rule, the cities of Verona, Vicenza, Padua and ]^^^^^^^^' 
Treviso, joined by Venice, Pisa and Genoa, and pro- 
tected by the former Ghibelline partisans of Barbarossa, 
entered into an alliance of defence called the "League 
of Lombardy". The confederated cities rebuilt Milan, 
and soon increased their number to fifteen important 
towns. 

Alexander III. held with the rebellious cities, calHng Fourth 
himself the "Propagator of ItaHan Liberty," and Fred- ?i^S^^'^°' 
eric in wrath marched against Rome, deposed him, and 



62 HISTORY or GERMANY. 

set up an anti-Pope; but disease spread amongst his 
troops, and he was forced to leave Rome without bring- 
ing matters to a conclusion. The following year, finding 
it impossible to resist the Lombard cities, he escaped 
from Italy by Susa and the ravines of Savoy, disguised 
as a valet and accompanied only by thirty men-at-arms. 
From this moment everything prospered with the 
League of Lombardy; and during the six years that 
ensued, had Italy been able to organize a federal repub- 
lic, or to form a constitutional government, she might 
have remained free, with power to resist foreign con- 
querors. But nothing of the sort was attempted, and 
the League remained incomplete. 
Fifth At last, in the year 1174, the Emperor reappeared in 

^ampaig , j^^j^ ^^^ ^j^^ head of another army, and accompanied by 
Henry the Lion. He marched at once to the siege of 
Alessandria, a town so named in honor of the Pope, 
and erected by the Lombard cities as a protection against 
the imperial allies, the Marquis of Monteferrato and the 
inhabitants of Pavia. The walls, hastily constructed of 
mud and straw, were derided by the German soldiers, 
who called it "Alessandria of straw". But the intre- 
pidity of the Italians rendered the city of huts impreg- 
nable, and Frederic gave up the siege in the spring, be- 
fore the advance of the troops of the League. 

Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had all 
this time been nourishing designs against his imperial 
friend and benefactor; and now — thinking that a good 
opportunity had occurred to seize the throne during 
Frederic's absence from Germany — he excused himself 
from going farther South into Italy with the army. In 
vain the Emperor went so far in his entreaties as to throw 
himself upon his knees before his cousin, making appeals 
to his sense of honor, generosity and gratitude. The 
Guelph remained inflexible, and returned to Germany. 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 63 

The Milanese with renewed energy assembled to sixth 
encounter Frederic near Legnano. Transported with Legnano,"" 
enthusiasm, the young nobles had raised two squadrons ^^'^ ' 
of cavalry, naming them the "Cohort of Death" and 
the "Cohort of the Caroccio," and pledging themselves 
to certain death, rather than to let the standard fall into 
the hands of the enemy. 

The shock of the first charge was terrible, and at first 
the Milanese wavered; but the "Cohort of Death" ral- 
lied and returned to the charge, shouting aloud as a war 
cry their vows for their country. The imperial eagle was 
overturned, the Emperor himself fell from his horse and 
disappeared, and his whole army was dispersed. For 
two days Frederic was supposed to be dead; and when 
he reappeared at Pavia he found the Empress Beatrice 
of Burgundy already clad in widow's weeds. Such a 
humihating defeat, after twenty-two years of warfare — 
the loss of seven armies, and the death of half a million 
of soldiers — made it useless to continue the struggle. 
Frederic made overtures of peace to the Pope, and a 
truce was concluded between them at Venice, where the 
Emperor prostrated himself, and kissed the feet of the 
Pope, receiving in return the kiss of peace and the re- 
moval of the ban of excommunication. 

A definite treaty was signed at Constance in 1 183. Treaty of 
The Italian cities recognized the supremacy of the Em- 
peror, and renewed their oaths of fidelity for ten years; 
but they recovered their regal rights which had been 
forfeited to Frederic years before at Milan. The Pope 
also allowed Frederic to hold the estates of the Countess 
Matilda for fifteen years. 

On Frederic's arrival in Germany, Henry the Lion ugo. 
was summoned before him to answer for his treachery, 
but he refused to appear. Frederic then seized his pos- 
sessions in Saxony and Bavaria, declared Henry an 



64 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

outlaw, took away the ducal title, and bestowed all his 
estates in Bavaria on Otto von Wittelsbach, the ancestor 
of the present reigning House of Bavaria. Saxony was 
given to Bernard Ascanius. Nothing was left to the 
Guelphs but the territory of Brunswick ; and it is through 
this House of Brunswick that the King of England is 
descended from the ancient (Guelphs) Welfs. 

Meanwhile, Frederic did not lose sight of his wish to 
strengthen himself in Italy, so he contrived a marriage 
between his son Heinrich and Constanza the Nun — 
the heiress of the Two Sicilies, a Norman princess of the 
Hauteville family. The Pope was furious at the break- 
ing of her vows, and as a sort of expiation the Emperor 
offered to take part in the coming crusade. 
Third In 1 1 86 ucws Came to Europe that Jerusalem had 

Crusade. 

1186. " fallen into the hands of the Saracen Saladin, owing to 
the incompetency of the Christian kings; and Europe 
was once more roused to undertake a crusade to deliver 
the Holy City from the hands of the unbeHevers. Fred- 
eric rejoiced to be in the position of champion of the 
Church, gave up his disputes over Sicily, was reconciled 
to the Pope, and started for the East on the same un- 
fortunate track that had been taken by his uncle, Conrad 
III. Arrived in Asia Minor, he defeated a large Turk- 
ish force sent out against him, and with his victorious 
army found himself on the banks of the river Caleph ^ 
(Cydnus). Impatient to cross, he plunged in, but the 
current proved too strong for his horse to resist. Animal 
and rider both sank within sight of his own troops, whose 
grief was indescribable. Some say that Frederic's body 
was recovered, and that he was buried at Tyre. 

His son, Heinrich VI., conducted the army to the siege 
of Ptolemais, and joined the Christian forces there under 
Philippe Auguste of France, Richard Coeur de Lion of 
1 Or ''Saleph". 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 65 

England, and Leopold V., Duke of Austria; but again 
the Turks gained the day, and once more strengthened 
their footing in Palestine, and Heinrich VI. gave up the 
attempt and returned home. It was in this reign that 
Richard I. was captured by Leopold, Duke of Austria. 
He was compelled to give him up to the Emperor; and 
Richard was kept a prisoner for two years, and then 
ransomed at a cost of ;,£4oo,ooo. 

The Germans would not believe that their mighty 
Emperor was dead. Even now he is said to be seated 
in the interior of the "Kyffhaiiser" mountains, with his 
beard grown through the table; and the legend says: 
"Whenever the raven ceases to fly to the mountain, 
Frederic Barbarossa will come back to take up his 
kingdom again". The people firmly believe that at 
some crisis in the history of the Fatherland, the great 
Emperor will reappear as their deliverer. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Heinrich The few years of Heinrich VI. 's reign were fully 
occupied in recovering the possessions of his wife, Con- 
stanza (the Nun), from the hands of her two relatives, 
Count Tancred, grandson of King Roger, and WiUiam 
III., his son, who had taken possession of the two 
SiciHes, and were supported by all the leading famihes 
of the kingdoms. In two expeditions — the costs of 
which were partly defrayed by the ransom extorted 
from Richard Coeur de Lion, King of England — Hein- 
rich VI. made himself master of these countries. Such 
an easy conquest might have appeased the wrath of the 
Emperor against the Normans, but, on the contrary, he 
treated them with the most barbarous cruelty, putting 
out the eyes of his young prisoner, Wilham, and exhum- 
ing the body of Tancred to have his head cut off by the 
executioner. He then carried off the treasures of the 
old Norman kings, together with i6o mule-loads of gold, 
silver, and precious stones; and when the Sicilians once 
more revolted against his tyranny, he marched against 
them, seized their leader. Count Jordano, and had him 
put to death with horrible tortures before his own eyes, 
that he might enjoy the sight of his sufferings. 

Left master, by sheer terror, of a kingdom which had 
before now proved fatal to his dynasty, Heinrich VI. 
endeavored to strengthen his position in Italy by giv- 
ing to his brother, Philip of Swabia, the inheritance of 
Countess Matilda; whilst he himself prepared the Sicil- 

66 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 6/ 

ian fleet to undertake the conquest of the East. But his 
sudden death (some say by poison at the hand of his 
wife, Constanza, to avenge the miseries of her com- 
patriots) put an end to the attempt. 

He left a httle son of only three years old, who had 1197. 
already been proclaimed King of the Romans. 



CHAPTER XX. 



Frederic 
II., 1 197. 



Philip of 
Swabia, 
1 198. 



Otto IV. of 
Brunswick 
(the 
Superb), 

Z20S. 



The Papal throne was occupied at this juncture by the 
cleverest of all the priests who had worn the triple crown. 
Young, handsome, and eloquent, full of confidence in the 
sanctity of his office, Innocent HI. realized more com- 
pletely than any of his predecessors the accomphshment 
of the vast schemes of Gregory VII., so that his pontifi- 
cate marks the complete triumph of the Papal See. He 
overthrew at once all idea of a republican government 
in Rome, reasserted his authority over the lands of the 
Countess Matilda, and organized a league amongst the 
cities of Tuscany, of which he declared himself the 
patron. He then accepted the guardianship of the 
child, Frederic II., from the hands of his dying mother, 
Constanza, faithfully promising her to look after the 
boy's interests, and secure to him the possession of the 
Empire of the Two SiciHes as soon as he should be of 
age to hold them. 

Meantime, many of the German princes had elected 
Philip, Duke of Swabia, to fill his brother's place; others 
had chosen Otto of Brunswick, second son of the fa- 
mous Guelphic chief, Henry the Lion. After some hesi- 
tation, the Pope took the part of Philip, forcing him at 
the same time to make some concessions advantageous 
to the Papacy. 

Suddenly, however, Philip was assassinated by the 
Count Palatine of Bavaria, to whom he had refused to 
give his daughter in marriage, and Otto of Brunswick 

68 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 69 

was generally accepted as Emperor; the more willingly 
as he had alHed himself by marriage to the Hohenstauf ens, 
by marrying the daughter of the murdered Phihp of 
Swabia. 

The chief of the Guelphs, now without a rival, de- 
sired to be crowned in Rome, and for this purpose he 
entered Italy amidst the joyous acclamations of the 
people, and was met by the Pope himself, and by deputa- 
tions from the Lombard League, bearing the golden 
keys and shields embossed with the coats of arms of 
their cities, all seeming to imagine that complete unity 
was at last to be established between the Empire and the 
Papacy. But the Emperors considered themselves mas- 
ters of Italy by virtue of their title, and thought that only 
feudal investiture could be given up to the Pope, and 
certainly not any gifts of lands which could effect a dis- 
memberment of the Empire, whose rights were inalien- 
able. Therefore, once safely crowned, Otto absolutely 
refused to give up to the Pope the inheritance of the 
Countess Matilda. He chased the pontifical troops out 
of the marches of Ancona, and assigned a day for the 
young Frederic to come and receive from his hands the 
investiture of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 

At this totally unexpected proceeding Innocent's wrath 
burst forth. He launched a Papal Bull against Otto, 
deposed him, and sent legates to Germany to proclaim 
his pupil, Frederic — then a boy of eighteen years of age, 
nicknamed the ^'King of the priests" — as Emperor. 

Thus we find the Pope relying on the heir of the 
Ghibelline Hohenstauf en ; and the Guelphic Emperor 
at strife with the Guelphic cities of Lombardy, and 
supported in Italy by the Ghibellines, showing how com- 
pletely the interests of the Empire and Papacy were irrev- 
ocably and radically opposed to each other. 

Frederic having been crowned Eling of the Romans 



70 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Bouvines, 
1214. 



Frederic 
II., 1215. 



1220. 



at Aix-la-Chapelle, Otto had the folly to leave his do- 
minions and go off to his uncle John, King of Eng- 
land, to assist him in his war against Phihppe Auguste 
of France, leaving the field open to his rival. John and 
Otto sustained a defeat at the battle of Bouvines. 

The German States pronounced in favor of Fred- 
eric, and, almost in disgrace, Otto shut himself up in 
his hereditary Duchy of Brunswick. 

Frederic II., to show his gratitude to the Pope, agreed 
to give up the dominions of the Countess Matilda, to 
undertake a crusade to Palestine, and to yield up to his 
son the kingdom of the Two SiciHes, which was to be con- 
sidered in future an appendage to the Papal See, and 
never more to be united to the German Empire. 

Frederic II., son of Heinrich VI. and Constance de 
Hauteville (the Nun), in spite of his German blood, was 
quite an ItaHan prince, brought up amidst the luxury 
and romantic passions of the South; and his Sicilian 
education had given him a taste for Saracenic art, po- 
etry, and music, which brought trouble into his future 
life. He lived in his palace Hke an Eastern Sultan, sur- 
rounded by tamed Hons, going to war mounted on an 
elephant, indifferent to pohtical questions of the time, 
and amusing himself with composing verses in the new 
Italian language, only just beginning to be established 
with anything like stabihty. 

Frederic quickly forgot his promise to his protector, 
Innocent III., to allow the separation of the Two Sicilies 
from the Empire and to undertake a crusade; and it was 
only on condition of his immediately setting out for the 
Holy Land that the succeeding Pope Honorius con- 
sented to crown him Emperor of Germany. But, brav- 
ing the pontiff's displeasure, Frederic kept on deferring 
his crusade, and busied himself with persuading the 
barons to elect his son, Heinrich, King of the Romans; 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. /I 

intrigmng with the Saracens, and even going so far as 
to import an entire colony of Mohammedans, and place 
them in Lucera, in the very face of the Pope himself. 
The latter was at first enraged, but was appeased by 
fresh promises from Frederic, and by his marriage with 
Yolande of Jerusalem, daughter of Jean de Brienne, 
titular King of Jerusalem, and grand-daughter of 
Foulque of Anjou. By this marraige, Frederic II. be- 1225- 
came titular King of Jerusalem. 

Ten years had elapsed, and still the promised crusade 
had never been attempted. But when Honorius died, 
he was succeeded by a clever, obstinate man, Pope 
Gregory IX., who at once claimed the fulfilment of 
Frederic's promise. At last, Frederic set to work and 
made grand preparations on a large scale, even getting 
so far as to set sail from Brindisi; but an epidemic 
broke out amongst his followers, and Frederic landed 
again after three days' absence. The Pope was furious, Sixf 1 
and so worked upon Frederic's feelings that the latter 1228. 
once more — most reluctantly — embarked for Palestine, 
and landed in Syria on his way to Jerusalem. There he 
found that the Pope had sent word beforehand to warn 
the generals of the army that the Emperor was excom- 
municated, and was not to be honored as their Hege 
lord on account of his contumacy. 

Whereupon Frederic made overtures to the Saracens 
at Jerusalem, who immediately opened their gates, made 
a favorable treaty with him, granted him privileges, and 
promised to give up part of Palestine for his possession. 
Frederic desired to be crowned King of Jerusalem, but 
no priest could be found to perform the ceremony on an 
excommum'cated prince, so he took the crown and placed 
it on his own head. 

In 1 23 1, fearing to lose his estates in Italy and Naples, 1231. 
and not daring to finger further among his Saracen 



72 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

friends, Frederic II. returned to Europe, only to find 
that the Pope had stirred up what he called a crusade 
against the "Crusading Emperor," headed by Jean 
de Brienne, his father-in-law. 

Although for a time Frederic's presence restored 
some sort of peace, and a fleeting reconciliation was 
made with the Pope, war soon broke out again. The 
ferocious chief, EzziHno (Eccehno) III., of the House 
of Romano, chief of the GhibelHne party, and one of 
the most redoubtable tyrants ever known in North 
Italy, called to the Emperor for assistance, and together 

1237. they seized Padua and other cities of Lombardy, cap- 

tured Vicenza and Mantua, defeated the Milanese at 
Corte Nuova, sent their beloved "Caroccio" to Rome 
as a sign of triumph, and subdued all Lombardy except 
Brescia and Milan. 

But the Pope would not permit the total destruction 
of the "Lombard League" — now reduced to four towns 
— and he procured assistance from the Venetians and 
Genoese. He was still further roused by the fact that 
Frederic had proclaimed his favorite but illegitimate 
son, "Enzio the Handsome," King of Sardinia, in de- 
fiance of the Pope's asserted right to nominate to the 
crown. Gregory IX., thoroughly exasperated, excom- 
municated Frederic a second time, deposed him, and 
convoked a general council at Rome to decide what 
was to be done. But before the members could assem- 
ble, Frederic laid siege to the old pontiff in his capital; 
and his fleet, commanded b}^ Enzio, captured and de- 
stroyed the Genoese ships, which were conveying the 
prelates of France to the council. 

1 241. Gregory IX. died of anger and grief. For the mo- 

ment Frederic's power seemed fully established. Italy 
trembled before him, Germany was submissive; and at 
his bidding deposed his son, Heinrich, from being King 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 73 

of the Romans, and elected his younger son, Conrad, 
to fill the place. 

Then Frederic gave to his subjects a "code of laws" 
after the example of Justinian. 

Meantime a new and terrible danger threatened to 
overthrow the Empire, and bring calamity on all Eu- 
rope. The Huns — always the fiercest and most cruel 
foes of civihzation — poured into Russia under the lead- 
ership of a new Attila — a chief named Genghis Khan. 
Poland and Hungary were invaded, and Germany ut- 
tered cries of terror. Even the death of their barbarian 
leader did not check the fierce onslaught of the Huns. 
His sons pressed their conquests on all sides. Cracow 
and Breslau were burnt, and the Duke of Silesia, Henry 
the Pious, was defeated in the great battle of Liegnitz. 1241 etc. 

Frederic II. wrote an eloquent letter inviting all the 
European sovereigns to unite against the common ene- 
mies of Christianity. The Pope, in his frantic rage 
against Germany, turned a deaf ear to the anguished 
entreaties of Europe; and, fortunately for the latter, the 
barbarians did not pursue their advantage, but of their 
own accord gave up the conquest of the West, and 
turned back to their own lands. 

For nearly two years after Gregory IX.'s death the 
pontifical throne was vacant; but in 1243, the cardinals 
(to whom he gave the red hat for the first time) elected 
Fieschi of Germany, under the name of Innocent IV. 
He was a former friend of the Emperor, but on his 
accession to the Papal throne Frederic exclaimed: 
^^ Fieschi was my friend, but the Pope will be my ene- 
my!" At first a semblance of peace was assumed, but 
on the Emperor's refusal to give up certain prisoners 
and Guelphic towns, a fresh quarrel broke out, and the 
Pope took refuge with his compatriots, the Genoese; 
and then, after appeahng in vain to the Kings of France 



74 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

and England for assistance, he settled at Lyons — which 
was an almost independent city, under the authority of 
its own bishop. 

1245. From thence he convoked a general council to give 

judgment on the conduct of Frederic II. In spite of 
the intervention of the gentle King Louis IX. of France, 
decision was given against Frederic, and for the third 
time he was excommunicated. A Bull was pubHshed 
in the churches, and Frederic saw his position threat- 
ened on all sides. From that moment the two parties 
seemed to lose all sense of fear of God or man, and their 
wild hatred caused a universal scandal throughout 
Christendom. The Pope wrote to the Sultan of Cairo, 
begging him to break off his alliance with the Emperor 

Seventh and to re-take Jerusalem. Frederic on his side warned 
the Saracens of the preparations which Louis the Saint 
was making for the next crusade. In order to procure 
soldiers against the Emperor, the Pope gave a dispen- 
sation to all crusaders, freeing them from their vow to 
deHver the Holy Land; and he even sold pardons to 
criminals condemned by the Inquisition, in order to 
induce them to enter his service. Frederic then took 
into his pay Saracens and heretics, and condemned the 
begging friars, who had preached the Papal crusade 
against him, to be burnt to death. 

Weary with all these dissensions, Frederic at last 
begged for peace, offering to spend the remainder of his 
life in Syria. The implacable pontiff refused. He had 
resolved to unite the kingdom of the Two Sicilies to the 
patrimony of St. Peter; and it was only by the exter- 
mination of the Hohenstaufen dynasty — "that race of 
vipers," as he called them — that this could be accom- 
plished. The abdication of one man was not sufficient. 
It was a sad ending to a romantic reign. The 
Emperor's most faithful subjects were the Sicilians. 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 75 

In Italy, the strife was complicated by all the horrors 
of civil and religious warfare. Ezzilino Romano con- 
tinued to perpetrate the most horrible atrocities in the 
Emperor's name; and even Frederic himself, soured 
by adversity, became cruel and vindictive. Terrible 
stories are told of the reprisals taken by him on help- 
less prisoners, or former dependants, against whom 
his jealous suspicions were roused. Adversities 
thronged upon the unhappy man on all sides. His son, 
the handsome Enzio, fell into the hands of the inhabi- 
tants of Bologna, and was thrown into a prison, where 
he languished for twenty years. Neither threats nor 
supph cations sufl&ced to procure his hberty. One day 
he escaped from prison, hidden in an old cask, but a 
lock of his hair, seen through a rift in the wood, be- 
trayed him. "Only Prince Enzio the Handsome can 
have such beautiful fair curls 1" cried a woman in the 
street, and he was taken back and shut up in an iron 
cage for the rest of his Hfe. Another son, Frederic of 
Austria, died at the same time. Overwhelmed by such 
crushing sorrows, Frederic at last succumbed and died 
in 1250, bequeathing his dominions to his son Conrad. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

Conrad The death of Frederic II. filled the Pope with joy. He 
Manfred, preached a crusade against King Conrad IV., and then 
proceeded to take immediate possession of the imperial 
dominions in Italy and Sicily. He made a triumphal 
progress through Lombardy, and was received by 
15,000 ecclesiastics at Milan, offering enthusiastic homage 
to their dehverer, who came, as they declared, to "free 
them from interdict and excommunication ". The suc- 
cess of the pontiff appeared to be certain, but he had 
reckoned without young Manfred, an illegitimate son 
of Frederic II., who had been nominated Regent in 
Sicily, in the absence of his brother Conrad. "This 
child," as the Pope called him, was only eighteen years 
of age; but he already displayed the talent of a general 
and the sangfroid and abiHty of a statesman. In char- 
acter he was firm and courageous, although less noble 
than his father, and not disdaining to use base means to 
gain his purpose. By the intrepid rapidity of his 
marches, Manfred suppressed the revolt of the towns; 
and when his brother Conrad arrived from Germany, 
only Capua and Naples remained to be subdued. Con- 
rad entered the latter by a breach in the walls, deHvered 
the conspirators into the hand of the executioner, and 
exasperated the inhabitants by putting a bit to the 
bronze horse of Uberty which stood in the pubHc square. 
But very suddenly Conrad IV. died, leaving as a suc- 
cessor a child of only two years old, Conradino, who was 

76' 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. // 

living with his mother in the hereditary duchies of 
Swabia and Franconia. 

During Conradino's minority two Emperors were Aiphonso 

o •'of Castile. 

named — Aiphonso of Castile, who never came to Ger- Richard, 
many at all; and Richard, Duke of Cornwall, brother Cornwall, 
of Henry III., who visited Germany for a short time 
and left it, saying it would not do for him to continue at 
its head. 

Innocent IV., dehghted at the death of Conrad, ad- 
vanced upon Naples at the head of a Guelphic army. 
The Marquis of Hohenburg, Conradino's guardian, Manfred, 
abdicated the regency in favor of Manfred. But 
Manfred, recognizing the impossibility of resisting such 
a force, with only the Saracens and Lombards as aux- 
iharies, decided to throw open the kingdom. He met 
the Pope himself at the frontier, prostrated himself be- 
fore him, and crossed the bridge of Garigliano on foot, 
holding the bridle of the Pope's palfrey. This act of 
submission, however, neither appeased the pride of 
Innocent IV. nor the insolence of his Guelphic sup- 
porters; and Manfred, despoiled of all his possessions, 
found himself obhged to flee to save his Hfe. 

After an adventurous and romantic journey across 
the Apennines, he arrived, with only three men for 
escort, before the gates of Lucera — the strong town 
guarded by the Arabs (Saracens), who had been placed 
there by Frederic II., and who were the faithful guard- 
ians of his archives and treasures. Manfred made an 
appeal to these devoted soldiers of his father, and they 
saluted him with enthusiastic acclamations. But as the 
keys of the town were held by the governor, who was 
hostile to the young prince, Manfred tried to penetrate 
into the town by an opening in the wall made to facihtate 
the overflow of rain-water; when the Saracens, thinking 



78 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

such a humiliation to the son of their Emperor insupport- 
able, broke down the gates, and carried him in triumph 
into the city. 

In a few days he had assembled an army with which 
1254. he marched upon Naples, where Innocent IV. was 

dying of fatigue and grief, distracted with terrible 
visions, cursing his family, whom he had enriched at the 
expense of justice, experiencing in his last moments the 
horrors of anguish and despair to which his enemy, Fred- 
eric II., had been a prey in his last days. 

Manfred governed the kingdom of the Two SiciHes 
at first in the name of his nephew, but on hearing a false 
report of the death of Conradino, which was designedly 
spread by his partisans, he had himself proclaimed 
king at Palermo. His birth and habits attracted the 
sympathy of the mixed population, where Saracen in- 
fluence was still strong; and to quiet the complaints of 
his nephew, he promised him the succession to the 
throne. For six years Manfred extended his influence 
to the north of Italy, and excited even the GhibelHnes 
themselves to overthrow the power of EzziHno di Romano, 
who, together with his family, perished miserably. He 
drove the Guelphs from Florence and Lucca, per- 
suaded the nobles of Tuscany to join the Ghibelline 
league once more, and fomented ill will amongst the 
people towards the Pope. 

The French Pope, Urban IV., seeing himself so 
gravely threatened by Manfred, looked round for a 
king who could be placed over the Two Sicilies to serve 
his own interests. He offered the crown to Henry III. 
of England, for his weak son, Edmund Crouchback 
(who had already been chosen King of the Romans); 
but Henry III. said he was too poor to support his son 
on the throne of Sicily. 
1262. The Pope then had some thoughts of Pedro of Ara- 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 79 

gon, whose wife was Manfred's sister, Constanza, but 
finally he appealed to Louis IX., the Saint of France. 
Louis had too much good feeling to take it for his son; 
but his brother, the proud, fierce, determined Charles 
of Anjou, who, as Villani says, "smiled seldom, spoke 
and slept little, but did much," was not averse to the po- 
sition. His wife, the beautiful Beatrice, daughter of 
Raymond, Count of Provence — ambitious to be called 
a queen like her two sisters — persuaded her husband to 
accept the title, saying: "My sisters sit on thrones, 
while I only sit on a footstool ". 

Entrusting a part of his army to his wife and son-in- 
law, Robert of Flanders, to be conducted across the 
plains to North Italy, Charles himself embarked at 
Marseilles with a thousand knights, passed his enemy's 
fleet under cover of a storm, and entered Rome to 
await the arrival of his soldiers. (He was crowned in 
1266 with his wife at the Vatican, after promising to 
restore to the Church the duchy of Benevento, and to 
pay an annual tribute of 8000 ounces of gold and a white 
palfrey to the Pope.) 

Seeing his projects thus baffled, Manfred tried to 
enter into negotiation with his rival, but Charles only 
replied by the insulting message: " Go and tell the Sul- 
tan of Lucera that between us there can be neither 
treaty nor peace, and that very soon he will either send 
me to Paradise or I will send him to hell ". 

A decisive battle took place at Grandella near Bene- Battle of 
vento. Manfred had the advantage at first, when 1263. 
Charles gave the unmanly order to aim at the horses. 
At the moment when Manfred was preparing to charge 
with his reserve, the silver eagle ornamenting his helmet 
suddenly fell to the ground. " It is a sign from heaven," 
he cried, and threw himself into the melee. He was not 
-ound till three days afterwards, pierced with wounds. 



8o HISTORY OF GERMANY.' 

Charles refused him honorable burial. The French 
knights, each carrying a stone, raised a monument to 
him; but the Pope's "nuncio" caused the body of the 
unfortunate prince to be disinterred, and thrown across 
the frontier, abandoned to winds and rains. 

Charles of Anjou entered Naples in triumph, amidst 
cries of enthusiasm from his new subjects. But very 
soon the exactions of his ofl&cers, the confiscations and 
acts of outrageous violence of the Provencal soldiers to- 
wards the Italians provoked a terrible reaction. The 
widow of Manfred had been conveyed to a dungeon in 
Provence, where her children languished thirty-one 
years. The Ghibellines and all discontented subjects 
turned their eyes towards young Conradino. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

Meantime Conradino was growing up strong, beauti- Conrad- 
ful, and beloved at the court of his uncle, Ludwig, last 
Elector of Bavaria. He was sixteen years of age, tall staufen, 
of stature, with singularly beautiful features, and re- ^^ 
markable for his gracious manners and excessive gen- 
erosity. Like all his race he was gifted with much in- 
telligence and love of art. One of his poems is still pre- 
serevd. A great friendship had sprung up between 
himself and Frederic of Baden, his senior by three years, 
who had been deprived of his hereditary estates in Aus- 
tria by the Pope's favorite, Ottocar II., King of Bo- 
hemia. Although exiled, and despoiled by his uncle 
and other grasping relations, Conradino never ceased 
to show them the greatest affection and most entire con- 
fidence. He had successively sold or mortgaged all his 
dominions, and he was leading a poor, wandering life 
among the castles of Thurgau and Swabia, when the 
deputies of the GhibeUine party came to bring him 
money, and to beg him to come down into Italy to re- 
cover the throne of his ancestors. 

Conradino accepted the offer, in spite of his mother's 
tears. 

All seemed at first to go well. The nobles of Ger- 
many followed him. Sicily rose in his favor. The 
French fleet was destroyed by his own ships. He was 
received in triumph at Pisa, Siena, and even in Rome, 
from which the Senator, Henri of Castile, had just 
expelled the Pope. 

Passing by the fortress of Viterbo, where the Pope had 



82 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

taken refuge, Clement IV. — after excommunicating 
Conradino — looked down on the two young princes as 
they rode by. "Behold the victims for the sacrifice," 
he said ; " in eight days nothing will remain of that army." 

coz^i?' ^^ ^^^ ^^^y ^^^ ^^^ ^ prophecy. At the battle of Tag- 

1268. Hacozzo (or Alba, near Aquila), fought in August, 1268, 

Conradino was defeated. Fleeing with his friend, 
Frederic, and some unfortunate companions, in dis- 
guise, he reached the shores of the Mediterranean, and 
procured a bark to take them to Pisa; but a gentleman 
who had recognized him pursued and captured him, and 
in spite of all suppHcations, sold him to Charles of An- 
jou, who obHged him to follow liis army to Rome, on foot 
and in chains. 

The Pope desired that Conradino should be given 
up into his hands, but Charles was determined on his 
death; and after keeping him a prisoner at Naples for 
a considerable time, a form of trial was gone through. 
Only one of his judges could be induced to pronounce 
the sentence of death. Conradino was quietly playing 
at chess with his friend, Frederic of Austria — who was 
to share his fate — when the terrible news was brought 
to them. Without showing any sign of fear, the two 
princes asked for three days in which to prepare for 
death. They made their wills, obtained absolution 
from the Pope, and received the last sacrament together. 
In the pubHc market place Charles had caused a throne 
to be erected, that he might witness the execution. 
X269. The scaffold was covered with red cloth, in honor 

of the royal victims, and a concourse of people was 
assembled. On mounting the platform, Conradino 
exclaimed: "Alas! my mother! How deep will be thy 
sorrow at the news of this day." He then addressed 
the people, protesting against the injustice of the sen- 
tence; and when the executioner raised the axe, even 



HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 83 

the French knights shed tears, and all the spectators fell 
on their knees. A bitter cry escaped young Frederic of 
Austria as Conradino's head fell; then, with eleven other 
GhibeUine gentlemen, he in his turn underwent the 
same fate. 

Beside himself with indignation, Robert of Flanders, 
the king's son-in-law, flung himself upon the worthless 
judge who had pronounced the fatal sentence, and with 
one stroke of the sword, flung him from the balcony 
amidst the approving cheers of the multitude. 

Even in death the implacable hatred of Charles of 
Anjou followed the poor young men. He relentlessly 
forbade their bodies to be buried in consecrated ground, 
and they were secretly interred in the sand by the sea- 
shore. Tradition says that the moment before receiving 
the mortal blow, Conradino threw his glove into the 
crowd, and it was picked up by a Swabian knight and 
carried to his cousin, Pedro of Aragon, the husband of 
Manfred's sister, Constanza. But the cruel death of the 
last of the Hohenstaufen was not to go unavenged. 

The Sicilians, passionately attached to their country, 
proud, suspicious, jealous of strangers — already deeply 
hurt by the scornful and careless manner of the Pro- 
vencals — were ready to take offence at the least provo- 
cation. They were, besides, devoted to the Swabian 
House of Hohenstaufen since the days of Frederic II., 
and were indignant at seeing their beautiful island de- 
graded to the rank of a simple province. Palermo, in 
particular, never forgot that in the time of the Norman 
rule she had been the metropolis of the kingdom. A 
profound hatred filled the hearts of the conquered race, 
and one spark produced a fearful conflagration. 

On the 30th of March, 1282 (Easter Monday), the SiciUan 
inhabitants of Palermo, in hohday costume, were pour- 1282!" 
ing out of the town to attend the vesper service at the 



84 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

church at the summit of Monreale. They had been 
forbidden to carry arms, and under pretence of searching 
for these, a French soldier insulted a young girl walking 
with her lover. "Death to the French 1" was the indig- 
nant cry of the Sicilian as he stabbed the Frenchman to 
the heart. He was instantly cut down himself. This 
was a signal for a general rising of the people. The 
alarm was sounded, and in a few hours thousands of 
Provencals were killed — men, women, and children all 
alike struck down without pity. A few days later, Mes- 
sina followed the example of Palermo; and during the 
following month the insurrection spread over the whole 
island. 

The massacre of the Sicilian Vespers has gone down 
from generation to generation as a by-word of horror 
for the maddened wrath of an injured people. 

When Charles of Anjou heard the news at Naples, 
he remained silent for a time, glaring fiercely round him, 
gnawing the top of his sceptre, and then burst forth into 
terrific vows of vengeance. He crossed over to Sicily 
with a formidable army of 75,000 men, and laid siege to 
Messina. 

After a long struggle, the inhabitants offered to lay 
down their arms on condition of an amnesty; but 
Charles absolutely refused, saying he required 800 heads 
from Messina alone. Then in their distress the Sicil- 
ians made overtures to Pedro of Aragon, who hurried 
to their assistance with a fleet commanded by the cele- 
brated Roger de Loria. A battle took place in the Bay 
of Naples, when Charles the Lame, son of Charles of 
Anjou, fell a prisoner into the hands of the Spaniards, 
and was sent to Spain as a hostage. 

Pedro of Aragon remained master of Sicily, though 
the strife continued between the Anjouvins and the 
Aragonese till the end of the century. 



INTERREGNUM, 1250-1273. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

The death of Conradino brings the House of Hohen- ^^^^^' 

staufen to an end, and the terms " Guelph" and " Ghib- 1250- 
' -^ 1273. 

elline" cease to have any real meaning, although the 
titles were still used for party strifes in the incessant 
civil wars which followed this period. With the ruin of 
the Hohenstaufen family, several of the great republican 
cities of Italy decKned, being unable to withstand the con- 
tinued attacks of their enemies; as, for instance, Pisa, 
which suffered so terribly at the hands of their Genoese 
adversaries as to give occasion for the proverb: "Do 
you want to see Pisa ? Go to Genoa." 

All over North Italy the republican governments 
were displaced to make room for powerful rising fam- 
ines, the heads of whom reigned as "podestas" or 
tyrants. 

Germany was in a state of the greatest disturbance. 
On the death of Conradino, Swabia and Franconia, 
which had belonged to his family, were dismembered. 
Sovereignty was lost as the numerous duchies, counties, 
bishoprics, and leading towns were thus dismembered, 
and imperial authority became nil. The vassal princes, 
the Kings of Denmark, Poland, Hungary, and Burgundy, 
threw off the yoke of the Empire, and declared them- 
selves independent. The reputation of the throne had 
become so degraded that no candidates presented them- 
selves 'for election, and the crown was even offered to 
foreigners. 

85 



S6 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

It would be difficult to imagine to what a condition of 
disorder and confusion the country, after the death of 
Frederic II., had been reduced. War and strife filled 
every corner and district. The "robber knights" held 
powerful castles on the banks of the Elbe and Rhine, and 
compelled all vessels desirous of landing to pay heavy 
tolls. On the highroads they lay in wait for trains of rich 
merchants travelUng from city to city, plundered them, 
took them prisoners, and only released them on payment 
of exorbitant ransoms. They robbed the peasantry, and 
carried off their cattle. By sea, the Danes and Swedes 
seized the trading vessels, and having secured their 
booty, sank the ships. 
Hanse- The rich commercial towns of Hamburg and Liibeck 

atic ° 

League, — called Hause towns since the days of Conrad III. 

I24I,j 

(1140) — at last resolved on combining to defend them- 
selves, and entered into a League (Handelverbindung) . 
They raised troops to protect their property on land, 
and built warships to keep their trading vessels safe on 
the Rhine and Elbe. 

The robber knights were taken by surprise and over- 
powered, their fortresses destroyed, their fleet scattered, 
and they themselves put to death. 

When the other towns saw how securely Hamburg and 
Liibeck could carry on their commerce, they also joined 
the League; and the number of towns was increased by 
Rostock, Wismar, Braunschweig, Stralsund, Greifs- 
wald, Kolberg, Stettin, Berhn, Frankfort, Konigsberg, 
Danzig, Magdeburg, Koln, etc.; and at last eighty-five 
cities, with a powerful army and a fleet of 200 ships, 
found themselves in a position of absolute command. 

Their strength was so great that they could attack any 
place with certainty; and oii one occasion even besieged 
Waldemar, King of Denmark, in his capital of Copen- 
hagen. 



INTERREGNUM, I25O-I273. 87 

For nearly 300 years the Hanse towns kept up theii 
position of power and importance. But in course of 
time, as order was restored in Germany, one town after 
another withdrew from the League; and at the present 
moment only Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bremen retain the 
name of "Hanse towns," and the rights which accrued 
from the League. 

THE TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES. 

The influence of the crusades on mediaeval Europe was influence 
important from the mingling of various races, the draw- sadesf'"^ 
ing together of all Christian nations in the pursuit of one 
idea, and that idea a spiritual and disinterested one, 
dominating material interests. The crusades, no doubt, 
assisted in enlarging and developing men's minds, open- 
ing up an almost unknown world in the East, and help- 
ing the Teuton races to profit by contact with the su- 
perior civilization of the Greeks and Saracens. 

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the art Science, 
of medicine, the estabHshment of universities, the study 
of languages, natural science, philosophy, geography, 
history, etc., all owe their importance to Saracenic asso- 
ciation. 

Commerce made great strides, as well as the knowl- Discov- 

. . eries. 

edge of navigation, with the use of the mariner's com- 
pass learnt from the Arabs, but probably borrowed from 
the Chinese. 

When the rich stores of Asia — such as precious stones, com- 
ebony, cotton, silk, pepper, cinnamon, balm, dates, su- ™®^*^®* 
gar, myrrh, aloes, musk, etc. — arrived in Italy, they were 
transported across the Alps to the great merchant cities 
of Augsburg, Nuremberg, Erfurt, Mayence, and Co- 
logne, from whence a portion was again sent further to 
the Balkan Provinces and the centre of Russia. The 



88 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Chivalry. 



Lower 
Orders. 



Morals, 



Astrol- 
ogy, etc. 



Gun- 
powder, 
etc. 



merchandise of the South, thus exchanged for that of 
the North in wood, hemp, tallow, amber, bees' wax, and 
furs, caused the growth and prosperity of the Hanse 
towns. 

PoHtically, the crusades checked the inroads of the 
Turks, and preserved Europe from the yoke of Mo- 
hammedanism. The feudal system was relaxed as 
royalty grew into power and the commons became en- 
franchised. 

The orders of chivalry, the use of tournaments, 
armories, etc., are all significant of the new state of 
Christan Europe. 

Liberty was given to the lower orders, and the condi- 
tion of the serfs much improved. 

But, on the other hand, the crusades had a fatal effect 
upon religion and morals, although they would seem to 
have been promoted by a deeply religious feehng. The 
crusaders grew to think that being engaged in a "holy 
war 

the persuasion tnat tney were 
Popes openly offered remission of the most atrocious 
crimes, in return for sanguinary warfare and bloody 
deeds often carried out simply in the interests of the 
Papacy. 

The tweKth century was an epoch of poHtical and in- 
tellectual progress. Science rapidly advanced, though 
curiously mixed up with all kinds of superstition and 
supernatural fancies. The great men of the day put 
their faith in astrology, alchemy, the "philosopher's 
stone," and magic, even whilst searching for — and in 
some cases succeeding in making — grand discoveries 
when in pursuit of these very things. 

Roger Bacon invented telescopes, discovered the 
laws of refraction, and introduced gunpowder (prob- 
ably also from the Chinese through the medium of the 



" left them free to commit excesses of all kinds, in 
persuasion that they were serving God. The 



INTERREGNUM, I25O-I273. 89 

Arabs). In searching for the " philosopher's stone," ^ 
Arnaud de Villeneuve discovered the use of the three 
acids — nitric, sulphuric, and muriatic — and learnt the 
way to distil brandy; but, Hke Roger Bacon, he was 
suspected of heresy, and placed under the ban of the 
Church, so that his discoveries were not generally ac- 
cepted till long after the time they were made. 

The literature of the twelfth century was greatly en- Romance 
riched by the use of the Romance languages — Italian, guages. 
French, Spanish, and Portuguese — which were spread 
by jongleurs and troubadours throughout Europe. 
Their songs and ballads laid the foundation of modern 
poetry, and gave us the heroic deeds of Charlemagne, 
Roland, and the British Kinsr Arthur in verse; whilst ^inne- 

' ° ' singers. 

Germany furnished the " Minnesingers," amongst whom 
nobles and even kings were not ashamed to take a place. 
The celebrated "Nibelungenlied" dates from this Nibei- 

ungen- 

period. It is filled with legends of Scandinavian and Ued. 
German heroes, mixed up with stories of Attila and the 
Huns, and is compared by admiring Germans to the 
"Iliad" of Homer. The fine pictures illustrating the 
poems are to be seen in the king's palace at Munich. 

Great changes took place in architecture. The cor- Architec- 
porations of "Freemasons" built beautiful cathedrals. Free- 
caring nothing for money or renown, but giving their 
time and work for the glory of God, and leaving to the 
public but few names of these self-sacrificing workmen. 

ReHgious feehng in the middle ages left its stamp on Art. 
all art; and not only in church building but in sculpture, 
paintings stained glass windows, tapestry, jewelry, and 
music can its influence be clearly marked. 

Even as early as the fourth century there were signs of Signs of 

protest against such abuses in the Church as the worship Refor- 
mation. 

^ By means of which baser metals might be turned into pure ^"^°^^ ^° 

gold. Church. 



90 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

of images and of the Virgin and saints, the ceHbacy of 
the clergy, and the supremacy of the Pope. But in the 
ninth century a strong effort was made by the venerable 
Vaudois. Archbishop Claude of Turin, founder of the Vaudois 
Church in Piedmont, to reform the Church. He was 
Spanish by birth, and chaplain to the Emperor Louis le 
Debonnaire, under whose protection he was allowed to 
retain his see for seventeen years. 

Gotteschalk, also in the ninth century, and Berenger, 
Archbishop oj Tours, in the eleventh century, protested 
against the new doctrine of "Transubstantiation" in- 
troduced by Paschase Ratbert. 

The careful teaching of Claude of Tmnn preserved 
the pure Gospel doctrines during his Hfetime; and it 
was not until the twelfth century that the Vaudois 
quitted the Church of Rome and began to be persecuted 
for their religion. 

Peter Valdo, the great promoter of religious movement 
at Lyons, made the first translation of the Scriptures 
into the Romance language, and distributed copies 
amongst the poor; but persecution obliged him to flee 
for refuge to Germany, and he died in Bohemia, 1179. 

The Vaudois were scattered throughout Central Eu- 
rope, leaving traces of their teaching in Alsace, Treves, 
Cologne, Passau, Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, and Dal- 
matia, as well as in Italy and Spain, and paving the 
way for the future upheaving of Protestantism under 
John Huss, Wicliff, and Martin Luther. 

The need for reform was general at the beginning of 
the thirteenth century; but all attempts as yet were pre- 
mature and ineffectual against the formidable power of 
the Roman hierarchy, especially when wielded by the 
arm of such a man as Innocent IIL, 1 198-1204. 



HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG, 
BAVARIA, ETC. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

In the year 1273 the Germans began to realize that R^og>^ i- 
they could not carry on the Empire without a head; and t^rg, 
in the difficulty of choice, when so few were ambitious 
of the position, the Archbishop of Mainz proposed that 
they should elect Rodolf, Count of Hapsburg — a pru- 
dent, courageous man, renowned for his piety, loyalty 
and justice. 

The count had large possessions in Swabia, Alsace, 
and Switzerland, but his home was the Castle of "Ha- 
bichtsburg," or Hapsburg, whose ruins can be seep to 
this day on a steep, forest-crowned height overlooking 
the Aar, in the Swiss Canton of Aargau. He was a man 
of singularly straightforward honesty of purpose, de- 
termination, and deeply religious feehng. Many an- 
ecdotes are told to exempHfy these traits. 

At his coronation at Aachen a sceptre was not forth- 
coming, when he reverently lifted a crucifix, saying: 
" This holy symbol which has saved the world may well 
replace a sceptre. '* 

His election was eagerly confirmed by Pope Gregory 
X., who met him in a friendly spirit at Lausanne, and 
promised him his full support on condition of his ceding 
the dominions of the Countess Matilda and all authority 
over the Church of Rome. This Rodolf consented to 

91 



92 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

do at the period of the Sicilian Vespers, when he re- 
nounced all the pretensions of the Hohenstaufen in 
Italy, and contented himself with drawing large sums of 
money from the principal Italian cities, in return for 
the confirmation of their privileges. "Italy," he said, 
" appears to me Hke the lair of a Hon — I see many traces 
of Emperors going into it, but none of any coming out." 
Rodolf suppressed the robber knights, and in one 
year destroyed as many as seventy of their strongholds. 
He condemned all the knights to death, saying; "I do 
not consider any man worthy to be called a knight who 
lives by robbery and dishonesty ". 

Although he was stern with wrong-doers, Rodolf was 
most gentle and forbearing with others, and he was 
truly beloved by his subjects, 
dotes" of ^^^ ^^y "^^^^ ^^ w^s encamped with his army before 

Rodolf. Mainz, he walked into the city in the early morning alone. 
He was hghtly clad, the weather was bitter, and very 
soon he was nearly frozen with the cold. Passing a 
baker's shop, with its glowing oven standing invitingly 
open, he turned in to get warm. But the baker's wife 
did not approve of stragglers from the camp, and tried 
to turn him out, exclaiming: "Get along to your own 
business; go back to your beggar-king, who is troubHng 
the whole country with his soldiers!" As the king did 
not move at once, she seized a jug of cold water and 
poured it over him. The king returned smiHng to the 
camp. That evening as he sat at dinner with his no- 
bles, he ordered a flask of the best wine and a dish of the 
finest meats to be sent to the baker's wife, with the mes- 
sage " that it was sent from the camp by the soldier who 
had had the pleasure of enjoying her cold water that day". 
The poor woman, horrified at what she had done, flew 
to the camp, and fell at the king's feet,— as he still sat 
at the dining-table,— imploring pardon. He laughed 



HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC. 93 

lightly, and said that the only punishment he should 
impose upon her was that she should relate the story her- 
self to the assembled guests, and that if she blundered 
he would correct her! 

On another occasion a beggar, asking alms of the Em- 
peror, used the expression, ^^ Brother Rodolf, give me 
some help". "Since when I have been your brother?" 
inquired Rodolf. "Are we not all brothers through 
Adam?" retorted the beggar. "Ah, true," said Ro- 
dolf; and gave him a penny. "But," remonstrated 
the beggar, "a penny is very little for a great monarch 
to bestow." "Yes," answered Rodolf; "but, then, if 
all your brothers through Adam were to give the same, 
you would be a rich man." 

Rodolf 's chief anxiety was to restore peace and order ottocar 
in Germany. Most of the refractory princes submitted Bohemia 
to him; except Ottocar, the powerful King of Bohemia, 
who — on the extinction of the Austrian House of Baben- 
berg (Bamberg) — had seized all the hereditary countries 
of Austria, St3nria, Carinthia, and refused three times 
to recognize Rodolf as Emperor, calHng him ironically 
" the poor count". 

Rodolf marched against him with a large army, and on MarzfeU 
the plains around Vienna, Ottocar lost both kingdom and 
Hfe on the field of battle. The Austrian dukedom, re- 
covered from Ottocar, was given by Rodolf to his son, 
Albrecht; and the House of Hapsburg is still the reign- Aibrecht 

TT • A • of Haps- 

ing House in Austria. burg. 

The kingdom of Bohemia was given to young Wen- 
ceslas IV.,^ who soon married one of Rodolf s numer- 
ous daughters. Four of the electors of Germany became 
in the same way sons-in-law of the Emperor. 

The dismembered fiefs of Savoy — "Pays de Vaud" 

^ Second King of Bohemia. 



94 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

and the towns of Payerne and Morat — were once more 
drawn back into the Empire. Rodolf nearly lost his 
life in a battle near the town of Morat. When thrown 
from his horse and surrounded by enemies, he flung him- 
self into the lake, and grasping the branch of a tree with 
one hand, he defended himself with the other until his 
followers could reach him. 

After a vain attempt to capture Berne, he died at the 
1291. age of seventy-four, and was buried in the Cathedral of 

Speier, universally mourned by his subjects, who called 
him the " Founder of the German Kingdom ". 



CHAPTER XXV. 

Some troubled years followed. Adolf of Nassau was Adolf of 
placed on the throne, but was deposed by the German 1292. ' 
princes, who elected Albrecht I., Rodolf's second son, 
as their Emperor. 

Albrecht I. was a powerful but stern and cruel prince. Albrecht 
His reign was chiefly remarkable for the struggle for Haps- 
freedom made by the Swiss Cantons of Schweitz, Uri, 1298! 
and Unterwalden against the oppressive rule of the 
Austrian House, in which the well-known figures of 
Gessler, Wilhelm Tell, Stauffacher, Von Winkelried, 
Walther Fiirst, and Ulrich der Schmidt, amongst others, 
are so conspicuous in the formation of the Swiss Con- 
federation. 

Before the conclusion of this strife, however, Al- 1308. 
brecht I. was murdered in front of his castle of Haps- 
burg by his nephew, Johann (called the Parricide), in 
revenge for his uncle having supplanted him on the 
German throne — Johann being the son of Rodolf's eldest 
son, whilst Albrecht was Rodolf's second son. 

On the death of Albrecht I., Heinrich of Luxemburg Heinrich 
(a descendant of Frederic Barbarossa, of the Swabian Luxem- 
House of Hohenstauffen) was elected Emperor as Hein- 1308! 
rich VIL; but he only reigned five years, and was de- 
posed in 13 13. Some say he was poisoned whilst be- 
sieging Brescia. 

The choice of a successor involved the country in a Fred- 
devastating war, which lasted eight years. of Haps- 

One party in the State wished to have Frederic III. 1314! 

95 



96 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Ludwig 
IV. of 
Bavaria, 
1314. 



Morgar- 
ten, 1315. 



MUhldorf, 
1328. 

Schwep- 
permann. 



(the Handsome), son of Albrecht I. of Austria; the other 
voted for Ludwig of Bavaria, descendant of the House 
of Wittelsbach. 

The Swiss held with Ludwig of Bavaria. Frederic's 
brother, Leopold I. of Austria, led an army against them, 
and a terrible battle was fought at Morgarten. Shut in 
between a steep hill on one hand, and the lake of Aigri ^ 
on the other, the heavily encumbered Austrian cavalry 
had no room to make a charge. The confederates, 
armed with clubs, halberts, and pikes, dashed down on 
the unfortunate army — hemmed in on all sides — and 
an hour and a half was sufficient to give victory to the 
Swiss. Leopold of Austria barely escaped with his Hfe. 
Meanwhile, the war between the rival emperors was 
carried on with great bitterness. At Miihldorf, Fred- 
eric fought with unheard-of valor, and victory seemed 
to be certain, when Ludwig's gallant general, Siegfried 
von Schweppermann, ordered an evolution by which the 
Austrian forces would have sun, wind, and dust full in 
their faces. At the same time, he sent a number of his 
horsemen — under the command of Count Frederic of 
Nuremberg — to ride round to the back of the enemy, 
flying the captured flags of the Austrians. The latter 
thought they were friendly reinforcements coming to 
their assistance. This stratagem completed the victory. 
The day was lost to the Austrians, and the Emperor 
Frederic III. was taken prisoner. Ludwig learnt to 
whom he owed his victory; and in the evening when the 
battle was over, and he and his tired officers were re- 
freshing themselves as well as they could in a peasant's 
hut, sharing the few eggs that could be collected, he ex- 
claimed: "One egg apiece all round, but two eggs for 
the gallant Schweppermann". 
Frederic of Austria was imprisoned in the Castle of 

1 Egeri. 



HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC. 97 

Trausnitz in Tyrol, and kept there three years. He was 
then released, on condition that he should never make 
any other further effort to regain his throne ; and that, 
should he ever attempt to do so, he should be impris- 
oned. 

Frederic hurried to Vienna to rejoin his faithful wiie, 
Elizabeth, who had wept herself blind with grief at his 
absence. 

But his brother, Leopold, did not consider himself 
bound by the same treaty, and took up arms against Lud- 
wig. Then Frederic, considering his "parole" broken 
by his brother's action, returned to Bavaria, and, in 
conformity with his oath, gave himself up once more as 
a prisoner. Touched by his high sense of honor, Lud- 
wig made real friends with Frederic. He treated him 
hke his own brother, and, according to the custom of 
the day, shared the same food and bed; and even pro- 
posed an arrangement by which they should divide the 
empire between them. This however, the nobles de- 
clared to be inadmissible. 

In the following year Frederic with his bhnd wife re- 
tired to his lovely castle of Gutenstein in Austria, where 
he soon after died. 1330. 

Ludwig reigned seventeen years after his death, but Jc^^^^^s 
his reign was clcuded with sorrows and difficulties. 

To curb the pretensions of the Papal See, he issued Prag- 
a Pragmatic Sanction at Frankfort, declaring that any Sanction 
prince regularly elected by the German States should be tion". 
recognized as Emperor without requiring the ratifica- 
tion of the Pope. Clement VI. — already irritated 
against Ludwig — persuaded a certain number of the 
electors to choose a new Emperor — Charles of Luxem- 
burg, son of the blind King Johann of Bohemia, and 
grandson of Heinrich VII. — but Ludwig easily held his 
own position till his death in 1347. 1347 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

Tv^f^ Charles IV. of Luxemburg succeeded Ludwig IV. His 

Luxem- mother, Elizabeth, was daughter and heiress of the Bo- 

1347! hemian king, Wenceslas^ V., and his bhnd father, Jo- 

hann, had, by the choice of the people, obtained the 

crown of Bohemia. He was killed at the battle of Crecy 

in 1346. 

Charles, therefore, possessed Bohemia, Moravia, and 
Silesia; and he further acquired Brandenburg and 
Lusatia, a marquisate in North Germany. 

He was untiring in his warHke efforts to strengthen 
his kingdom, and his endeavors to benefit his subjects. 
He would wander through the streets disguised in some 
homely dress, in order to see with his own eyes where 
real need was most pressing. 
Univer- He enlarged and beautified the city, and built the 

Prague. first German University of Prague in 1348. 

Seeing the difl&culties in which Germany was in- 
Buu "^° volved whenever a new Emperor was to be elected, 
Charles IV. issued a "Golden Bull" (so called because 
the seals were enclosed in a golden box), by which the 
forms of election were decided, and the choice of future 
Emperors Hmited to seven Electors, namely: — 
Seven Fouf PHfices — King of Bohemia, Count Palatine of 

the Rhine, Duke of Saxony, Markgraf of Brandenburg. 
Three Archbishops — ^Mainz (Mayence), Trier (Treves), 
Koln (Cologne). 

* Wenceslas, third King of Bohemia. 
98 



HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC. 99 

The beginning of his reign was marked throughout 
Europe by the desolating plague called the "Black 
Death," when all medicinal aids failed, and more than 
half the people succumbed to the disease. 

Charles IV.'s reign lasted for thirty-two years, and on 
his death he was mourned by the Bohemians as the 1378. 
" Father of his people ". 



LofC. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 



"Wences- 
las of 
Liixem- 
burg (the 
Drunk- 
ard), 
1376. 



Sempach, 
1386. 



His son and successor, Wenceslas, was quite incompe- 
tent to hold the reins of government, and not only in his 
own hereditary kingdom of Bohemia, but throughout 
Germany, there prevailed such lawlessness and confu- 
sion, that the only means by which merchandise could 
be safely carried on was by such Leagues as the " Hanse- 
bund," " Schwabischen," and "Rheinischen Stadte- 
biinde" (Hanseatic, Swabian, and Rhenish Leagues). 

In his reign the celebrated battle of Sempach was 
fought between Duke Leopold HI. (grandson of that 
Duke Leopold I. of Austria who was defeated at Mor- 
garten) and the Swiss, when Arnold von Winkelried 
rushed forward to the hitherto invincible six Hne deep of 
Austrian spears, and shouting: "I will make a path for 
freedom! Take care of my wife and child, comrades!'* 
grasped an armful of spears and turned them against his 
own breast; and so dying, opened the enemy's ranks for 
his brave Swiss followers to win the day. Duke Leo- 
pold was slain, and the flower of the Austrian cavalry 
perished. This victory was decisive for the liberty of 
Switzerland, which, however, was not fully recognized 
till the Treaty of Westphaha in 1648. 

Meantime, Wenceslas lived in Prague, almost always 
in a state of intoxication, and given up to deeds of un- 
restrained cruelty and self-indulgence. He would 
march through the streets accompanied by an execu- 
tioner, to kill any one who offended him. At one time 

100 



HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC. lOI 

he massacred 3000 Jews, and cut off the heads of all to 
whom he owed money. 

He cared nothing for the affairs of the State, and at 
last matters came to such a pass that he was twice im- 
prisoned by the opposing party, and finally forced to 
resign the imperial crown, and retire to his hereditary 1400. 
kingdom of Bohemia, whilst three other Emperors were 
successively elected to replace him by various parties of 
the electors. 

Frederic, Duke of Brunswick, was one of those elected, o/eJ-uns- 

but was assassinated immediatelv after his election, and ^^'^^' 

' 1400. 

is, therefore, seldom placed on a list of Emperors. 

Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine, was elected Rupert, 

^ ' ' Count 

after Frederic of Brunsvidck. He was crowned at Koln, Palatine, 

1400.' 
and died in 1410. 1410. 

Jossus, Marquis of Moravia, was next elected by one 

party of electors; but the others declared for Sigis- 

mund of Luxemburg, brother of Wenceslas. Jossus' 

death in the following year decided the question. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 



Sigis- 

mund, 

1410. 



Hohen- 

zollern 

Family 

in 

Prussia. 



Branden- 
burg and 
Rise of 
Prussia, 
1416. 



Hungary- 
united to 
Germany, 



Hussite:* 
Wars. 



SiGiSMUND of Luxemburg was already King of Hun- 
gary by his marriage with Mary, daughter of Ludwig 
I., the Great, of Hungary, in 1387 ; and in 1410, having 
been ahready put forward by one party of electors, he 
was recognized as Emperor by all Germany. On the 
death of his brother Wenceslas (the Drunkard), in 1419, 
he also became King of Bohemia. His character was, 
no doubt, better than that of his brother; but he was a 
vain, weak man, and not sufl&ciently noble-minded to 
inspire respect or admiration^ 

At the time that there was a doubt as to Sigismund's 
election, his cousin, Frederic of Bavaria (called Frederic 
of Nuremberg), of the House of HohenzoUern, employed 
himself actively in gaining for Sigismund the goodwill 
of the electors; and when Sigismund was safely estab- 
lished on the throne, he gave as recompense to his cousin 
the Margravate and Electorate of Brandenburg, in re- 
turn for a sum of 100,000 ducats. This transaction laid 
the foundation of the new kingdom of Prussia, which 
was destined to become the great central power of 
United Germany 400 years later, still preserving at its 
head the reigning family of HohenzoUern. 

Sigismund' s reign is memorable from this fact, and 
also that from this time is dated the connection between 
Hungary and the Empire. 

The whole of Sigismund' s dominions were wasted by 
the wars of the Hussites, which lasted fourteen years. 
Church matters were in great confusion; and during 



102 



HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC. IO3 

the reign of his brother, Wenceslas, three Popes had Three 
claimed dominion at the same time. One of these, 
John XXIII., had been a pirate in his youth, and was a 
man of notoriously bad life; Benedict XIII. was sup- 
ported by Wenceslas and the King of Spain; Gregory 
XII., by Rupert, Count Palatine and Emperor, and by 
Ladislas, King of Naples. 

r^ Cloister life had degenerated into ignorance and cor- Corrup- 
ruption, gross abuses had crept into the Church, and the 
holy offices were made objects of traffic. The Popes ^^^ ' 
introduced the system of indulgences, and begging 
friars were sent round the country to sell them. 

Against these abuses John Huss and his friend Jerome John Huss 
of Prague raised their passionate protests, boldly de- o?Prague?^ 
nouncing the errors of the Papacy, and calHng on all who 
valued the Church to rise up in defence of its purity. 
Bohemia had sheltered for many years the scattered 
Vaudois; and during the frequent intercourse with Eng- 
land, brought about by the marriage of Anne, sister of 
Wenceslas and Sigismund, with Richard IL, the Sclav 
and Czech population had had frequent opportunities 
of hearing the doctrines of Wicliff introduced by his 
works into the country; and a great number of students 
withdrew from the University of Prague to follow Huss. 

Although cited to appear before the Papal court at 
Rome, Huss did not even take the trouble to reply to the 
Pope's message; but openly counselled the people to 
read the writings of WicKff, which the Archbishop of 
Prague had condemned to be burnt. 

The archbishop excommunicated Huss, and laid the 
country under an interdict; when Huss, relying on the 
favor of the people for safety, retired to his native vil- 
lage of Hussinetz, and continued to preach to large mul- 
titudes, and to pubHsh tracts showing up the vices and 
corruptions of the clergy. 



I04 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Council of 
Constance, 
1414. 



Deaths of 
Huss and 
Jerome, 
1415-16. 



Ziska the 
Blind. . 



The German nobles entreated the Emperor Sigismund 
to call a general Council at Constance, on the Boden-See, 
that the Church might be purified.^ 

Huss was summoned, and, furnished with an im- 
perial safe-conduct, he appeared before the Council, but 
the accusations of his enemies were so forcible that the 
members of the Council refused to listen to his defence; 
and in spite of the royal guarantee of his Hfe and Hberty, 
he was first thrown into prison, and a year afterwards 
condemned to be burnt aHve. He suffered his fate on 
4th July, 141 5, followed the next year by his friend 
(Hieronimus) Jerome of Prague. The news of their 
deaths, and of the treachery used towards them, roused 
violent popular sympathy. 

The followers of Huss, headed by his patron, Nicolas 
von Hussinec (Hussinetz), in spite of their fierce oppo- 
sition, were declared heretics, like their master. 

On one occasion in Prague a Hussite priest was 
thrown from a window of the Council Chamber with a 
stone round his neck, upon which the raging mob 
stormed the town hall, and, out of revenge for the insult 
to their friend, they flung thirteen councillors out of the 
window in the same manner. 

War instantly burst forth. 

A knight named Johann de Trocznow (Ziska), one of 
the chamberlains of the Emperor Wenceslas, placed 
himself at the head of the Hussites, and raised the 
standard of a reHgious war. He was a man of extraor- 
dinary power and courage ; and though he had lost one 
eye by an accident, he commanded his troops with un- 



1 At the Council of Constance, which Sigismund opened in im- 
itation of Constantine the Great at Nicea, he exposed his vanity 
and ignorance by making a mistake in his Latin, and excusing 
himself for it by saying: *'I am King of the Romans, and above 
all rules of grammar ". 



HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC. IO5 

ceasing visfor. The Hussites were called "Calixtins," '' Caijx- 

... . tins. 

from the holy chalice which Ziska had chosen as his ar- 
morial sign; and the followers of WicHff's doctrines, or 
the ancient Vaudois, were known as "Taborites," from .'''^^^°'^' 

' ' ites. 

the hill of Tabor, where their first camp was stationed. 

In vain the Emperor Sigismund entered Bohemia to 
stem the revolt. His army was cut to pieces. In spite 
of the loss of his second eye in the battle, the terrible 
Ziska the Blind was so thoroughly acquainted with all 
the roads and forest paths, mountains and valleys of his 
country, that he still continued to lead his victorious 
army. It was only his death from the plague in 1424 1424 
which gave a check to the fearful campaign. Even then 
he ordered that his skin should be made into a drum, in 
order that after death he might continue to strike terror 
into the hearts of the Germans. 

The command of the Hussite troops was taken by 
Prakob the Great and Prakob the Little. The imperial 
troops were powerless to withstand them, and fled as 
soon as the Hussites presented themselves. 

With a desire to put an end to this miserable blood- BasSr^ °* 
shed, the Council of Basel was summoned; when such ^433- 
of the Hussites as would accept the conditions of the 
"Pragerartikel" were readmitted to communion with 
the Church; and after fourteen years of strife, the war 
at last came to an end. 

In 1438, the Emperor Sigismund was driven from the 1438. 
throne, and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Albrecht 
of Austria. 



Albrecht 
II. of 
Austria, 
1438. 



Interreg- 
num, 1439- 



Frederic 

III., the 

Pacific, 

1440: 

sometimes 

called 

Frederic 

IV. 



John Hun- 

niades, 

1445. 

George 

Podiebrad, 

1458. 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (Exclusively). 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

Albrecht II., the Great (fifth Duke of Austria), King 
of Hungary and Bohemia, promised to be an able ruler. 
He was son-in-law of Sigismund, whom he drove from the 
throne; but he only reigned one year, and died in 1439. 

An interregnum occurred, when the Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion of Ludwig IV. was issued, confining the Empire to 
the House of Austria. 

Frederic III., the Pacific (or the "Nightcap," from his 
falhng asleep during' important council meetings), was 
elected Emperor. He gave up privileges by a new con- 
cordat. He received the imperial crown and the iron 
crown from Pope Nicholas V., and was the last German 
Emperor crowned in Rome and Bohemia,^ marking the 
close of the Middle Ages. He lost Hungary by the 
valiant resistance of John Hunniades ^ in 1445, and Bo- 
hemia through George Podiebrad, 1458. 

The Turks ravaged the borderland. The Swiss rose 
and formed the Confederation of Gray-cloaks (Grisons), 
against whom Frederic hired the Armagnacs ^ (French 
mercenaries), as he refused to go to battle himself. 

^Frederic III. invented the proud^motto of Austria, A.E.I.O.U., 
" Austriae est imperare orbi universo". 

2 Matthias Corvinus, son of Hunniades, became King of Hun- 
gary at sixteen. He took Silesia, Moravia, Lusatia and a large 
part of Austria from Frederic III. and held all his conquests till 
his death. 

3 N.B. — Louis d'Orleans, brother of Charles VI. of France, 
married a daughter of the Comte d'Armagnac, and became the 
head of the Orleanist party, under the name of Armagnacs. 

106. 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). lO/ 

Frederic's character is marked by indolence and in- 
difference, in curious contrast to his impetuous, eager 
son who succeeded him. He cared nothing for his king- 
dom's troubles, but spent his time in his garden picking 
up snails and catching slugs, whilst his kingdom was 
assailed by enemies on all sides. His wife said of him 
that "Frederic would not take the trouble to turn the 
handles of the doors, but would keep his hands in his 
pockets, and kick at them till some one came to open 
them ". By doing this so frequently, he injured his feet; 
and to avoid mortification, the surgeon was obhged to 
amputate them. 

In 1477, his son, MaximiHan, married Mary, daugh- 1477. 
ter of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. 

Frederic HI. died in 1493. 1493. 

SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

The sixteenth century continues the Modern Era begun Sixteenth 
at the end of the fifteenth, and which is reckoned, from 
the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. 

The century is remarkable for great discoveries used 
for the first time (discovered earlier, but not employed 
at once), such as the mariner's compass, gunpowder, 
printing, great maritime discoveries of America, the way 
to India and the Cape of Good Hope, etc., the study of 
dead languages and antiquities leading to the Renais- 
sance of Art and the Reformation of Christianity. 

The pohtical characteristics of the century are the 
great predominance of Spain in the West, and of the Otto- 
man Empire in the east of Europe. 

Germany was composed of a great number of states, 
each independent of each other, but forming together a 
sort of confederation with a Diet and an Emperor at 
their head. The authority of the Emperor was almost 



io8 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



France. 



Massacre 
of St. 
Barthol- 
omew. 



nil; and even that of the Diet, though always recognized, 
was often defied by the princes in this century. The 
leading Houses were: — 

I. The House of Hapsburg, or Austria, which possessed 

large hereditary estates — the Archduchy of Austria, 
Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, part of Swabia, 
and a large portion of Alsace. Maximihan, by 
his marriage with Mary of Burgundy, increased 
these by the Netherlands, Artois, and Franche 
Comte; and his son, Philip, acquired Spain also 
by his marriage with Juana of Castile. 

II. The House of Wittelsbach, or Bavaria, which was 

divided into two branches: — 

The elder or Palatine branch possessed the 
Upper Palatinate in Southern Bavaria, with 
Munich for its capital; and the younger the 
Lower Palatinate, or Palatinate of the Rhine, 
with its capital of Heidelberg. 

III. The House of Saxony, also divided into two 
branches: — 

The Ernestine or Electoral branch, elder; Wit- 
temberg capital. The Alhertine or Ducal 
branch, younger; Dresden and Leipsic. 

IV. The House of Hohenzollern, also divided into two 

branches: — 

Swabia and Franconia. Frederic, Burggraf of 
Niiremberg became Markgraf of Branden- 
burg, and founded the kingdom of Prussia. 
In France the Huguenot wars were devastating the 
country, under the ambitious instigation of Catherine de 
Medici, and the inefficient carelessness of her sons 
Charles IX. and Henri III. These miserable differ- 
ences culminated in the awful massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew, August 24, 1572; soon to be followed by the revolt 
of Paris, the death of Henri III., and the installation of 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). IO9 

the House of Bourbon in the person of Henri IV. of Na- Henri iv. 
varre. With the aid of his able Minister Rosny, Baron 
de Sully, Henri IV. made a noble effort to recover France 
from her misfortunes, and to replace her in a position of 
peace and commercial prosperity; but Ravaillac's mur- 
derous knife too soon ended his brilHant career (1602). 

In England the House of Tudor was represented by England. 
Henry VIII., Mary and EHzabeth. The great struggle YiiiJ 
for reformation which marks all the central countries of 
Europe was also carried on in England. 



Maximil- 
ian I., 
1493. 



First 
Marriage 



1482. 



1493- 



CHAPTER XXX. 

MODERN HISTORY. 

When Frederic III. died in 1493, his weak, careless rule 
of fifty-three years had left the country in a state of dis- 
sension and feud, out of which it was an herculean task 
to construct such a monarchy as Maximilian I. dreamt 
of, reviving the ambition of Charlemagne, by which the 
whole of Central Europe was to form one vast united 
kingdom, and the imperial eagle of Rome and Germany 
was to be at the head of an equal sovereignty. 

MaximiHan, "the last of the knights," or "the Penni- 
less," is the name bestowed on this tall, handsome 
young scion of the Hapsburg House, from his courage, 
daring love of adventure, and chivalrous high-minded- 
ness, personal beauty, and majestic form. The Em- 
peror Max was beloved by all Germany, and remem- 
bered as the last star of a falhng House. At nineteen he 
married the lovely, golden-haired Princess Mary of Bur- 
gundy, daughter of Charles the Bold, who had lost his 
life in the unfortunate war against the Svidss. Through 
her Maximilian became possessed of the Netherlands 
and Burgundy. Four years after the marriage, Mary 
died of injuries caused by a fall from her horse whilst out 
hunting, leaving a little son, afterwards Philip I. of Spain. 

In 1493, MaximiHan was called to the monarchy of 
Austria, and elected Emperor of Germany in the same 
year; but even after his accession his love of adven- 
ture was constantly placing him in personal danger. 
Throughout Tyrol he was renowned as a chamois 

no > 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). Ill 

hunter, and it was on one of these expeditions that he 
found himself separated from his followers, and arrived at 
a spot from which there was no possibility of moving either 
forwards or backwards. Below him yawned a fearful 
abyss, above him the inaccessible precipice known as the 
"Martinswand". Far down beneath him were people 
gazing in horror, with tears rolHng down their cheeks, at 
the peril of their beloved Emperor; but none daring 
enough to attempt a rescue. Not until fifty-two hours 
had elapsed was Maximilian released from his formi- 
dable position by the boldness of an experienced chamois 
hunter, who let down a rope to him from above. Many 
stories are related of the romantic rashness and dar- 
ing of this notable man. 

For twelve years after Mary of Burgundy's death, Second 
Maximilian remained a widower; and then he married 
for a second time Maria Bianca, daughter of the Duke 
of Sforza of Milan — a cold, proud woman, who never 
won the real love of MaximiHan; but the marriage drew 
him into Italian politics. 

In Germany he did his utmost to promote peace and 
safety. "Fist-right" was finally abolished, and courts 
of justice were everywhere established to supersede the 
old rule of self-defence by might. 

The country was subdivided into circles for the better Circles, 
preservation of law and order. 

He introduced the system of the letterpost, and the Letter- 
first postal communication took place between Vienna 1516. 
and Brussels in the year 151 6, under the conduct of 
Count Thurn and Taxis (by birth an Itahan), whose 
successors later on received the title of "Imperial Post- 
master," and held it till 1866. 

MaximiHan also bettered the condition of the army 
by estabhshing standing infantry troops under the name 
of " Landsknechte ". 



112 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

The rooted desire of the Emperor's heart was the en- 
largement of his Empire; and accordingly he was glad 
to give his only son, PhiHp I. (the Handsome) in mar- 
riage to Juana of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand and 
Isabella of Spain; so that Phihp became the heir not only 
of the Archdukedom of Austria, with its elective claim to 
the Empire of Germany, but also of Spain, the Nether- 
lands, and the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, and the newly dis- 
covered countries of Peru, Brazil, and Mexico. On 
PhiHp's early death, his elder son, Charles, inherited the 

1516. Hapsburg kingdoms of Germany and Spain; and the 

younger son, Ferdinand, was given in marriage by his 
grandfather MaximiHan to Anna, sister of King Ludwig 
11. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia), thus giving Ferdinand 
a claim to those two kingdoms also. 

The visionary plan of MaximiHan of driving the Turks 
out of Europe never came to a fulfilment, for he failed to 
secure sufficient finances from the surrounding nations, 
or to stir them up to enough enthusiasm to carry out his 
project. The end of his hfe is marked by the work of 
the Reformation, bringing into notice Martin Luther's 
spirited denunciation of Romish errors, and vehement 
protests against Papal dominion. 

Augsburg. ^^^ -^i^^ ^^ Augsburg, convoked by MaximiHan, 
when Luther was confronted by the Papal Nuncio, Car- 
dinal Cajetano, and forced to escape for his life, was the 
last pubHc act of MaximiHan's Hfe. 

He caught a fever on his return journey, which was 
increased by an imprudent meal on melons, and he died 

15 19. at Wels, from which place his body was brought to 

Weiner-Neustadt, and interred in front of the altar, so 
that the priest should stand over his breast whilst con- 
secrating the Host. In the Castle of Innsbruck can be 
seen the magnificent monument designed by MaximiHan 
himself, but left unfinished; with bas-reHefs represent- 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). II3 

ing scenes from his own life, beginning with his marriage 
with Mary of Burgundy, to the marriage of his son, 
Philip, with Juana of Spain. 

On the death of the Emperor Maximilian in 1519, the 1519. 
Kings of France, Spain, and England (Francois L, 
Charles (I. or) V., and Henry VIII.) presented them- 
selves as candidates for the German throne; the first two 
using all manner of intrigues, and sacrificing enormous 
sums of money to gain the good-will of the Diet. 

But the electors, fearing too great a balance of power, 
put them all aside, and elected Frederic the Wise, 
Elector of Saxony. Feeling, however, that Germany 
required a powerful prince — supported by the frontier 
countries of Austria, Bohemia and Hungary at its head, 
in order successfully to check the invasions of the Turks 
— Frederic persuaded the electors to nominate Charles 
I. of Spain, grandson of MaximiHan, as Charles V. of 
Germany. 



CHAPTER XXXT. 



CHARLES V. 



Charles 
v., 1519- 



Charles V., grandson of Maximilian, and son of Philip 
the Handsome and Juana of Castile, was born in 1500, at 
Ghent, in the Netherlands, where he was brought up and 
educated till the age of sixteen, when he was proclaimed 
King of Castile and Aragon on the death of Ferdinand 
the Catholic. He had none of the artistic tastes or tal- 
ents of display which seemed to be the very Hfe itself of 
his great contemporary, Francois I. of France. He was 
active and industrious, working hard at whatever he un- 
dertook, and taking a part in all dehberations of his 
council — a quiet, grave, long-faced, under- jawed, studious 
man. He inherited such vast dominions as to give rise 
to the well-known boast that "the sun never set on his 
Empire". Besides Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Styria, 
Carinthia, and Tyrol, inherited from his father, he had 
also Spain, the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, and the rich 
newly discovered lands in America from his Spanish 
mother and grandfather, and the Netherlands and Bur- 
gundy in right of his grandmother. To these were added 
the imperial crown of Germany and Italy by election. 

Maximilian m. Mary of Ferdinand m. Isabella of 

of Austria Burgundy. of Aragon Castile. 



Philip I. 
of Austria. 



married 



Juana (Insane?). 



Charles V., 15 19, 

Head of the Spanish 

Branch of the Hapsburgs. 



114 



Ferdinand, 1522, 

Head of the German 

Branch of the Hapsburgs. 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). II 5 

In 1522 Charles resigned the eastern kingdom of Aus- 1522. 
tria, Styria, Carinthia, and Tyrol to his brother, Fer- 
dinand. 

At the news of the election of Cha,rles V., Francois I. 
of France — disappointed in his hopes of becoming the 
first man in Europe — resolved to revenge himself on the 
successful competitor. This was the origin of the in- 
cessant rivalry between the two brilliant men, and other 
motives were not wanting to make a serious quarrel. 
Francois I. desired to have Naples and Navarre given up 
to him, whilst Charles V. laid claim to Milan as a fief of 
the Empire, and to Burgundy in right of his grand- 
mother; moreover, each declared he was defending the 
peace of Europe against the other. The result of the 
dispute greatly depended upon which side the various 
countries would range themselves as allies. Henry 
VIII. proudly exclaimed: "The one whom I defend will 
win the day I" Francois and Charles both eagerly ap- 
pealed to him for aid. The former unwisely, however, 
roused Henry VIII.'s jealousy by the pomp displayed at 
the "Field of the Cloth of Gold"; whilst Charles, withheld of 

' the Cloth 

greater acumen, crossed to England, and paid a visit to o^ ^'^^^> 
the proud king in person. He won over the powerful 1520. 
Cardinal Wolsey to his side by promising him the Papal 
tiara. Wolsey, in return, insisted that his master should 
be reinstated in his former possessions in France. 

Pope Leo X. (Medici), who played an important part 
in the struggle, negotiated with both rivals in turns; but 
ended by siding with Charles V., for fear the Emperor 
should support the Lutherans in Germany against him. 

Francois I. — abandoned by England and the Papacy 
— ^held out his hand to the Protestants and the Turks, as 
the two declared enemies of the Emperor, although he 
had no real sympathy with either the one or the other. 
A close coaHtion between France, Protestants and 



ii6 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Campaign 
in Italy. 



1522. 



Bicocca. 



1523. 



1324. 



Turks would have presented almost insurmountable 
obstacles to Charles V.; but such diverse elements 
could never hope to be united for any length of time, and 
Charles comforted himself by feeling sure that he would 
find it easy to separate the allies, and so deal with his 
enemies singly one after the other in turn. 

Francois I. had for allies Venice, the Swiss, and the 
Turks. 

Charles V. counted on the Pope and Henry VIII. 

Italy was the principal seat of war. 

The French began unfortunately. The Swiss mer- 
cenaries — not having received any of the payment prom- 
ised by the French king for their services — mutinied, 
and demanded their "money, freedom, or battle". 
The French general, Lautrec, led them on hurriedly to 
attack the enemy, who were stationed in a formidable 
position at Bicocca, near Milan. Crushed by the Ger- 
man artillery, the Swiss were defeated, and obHged to 
give up Milan to the Emperor. 

The following year Francois received another check 
by the treachery of the Constable de Bourbon, who be- 
trayed the interests of France, and went over to the side 
of Charles V.. combining with him and Henry VIII. to 
dismember the kingdom of France. 

In the spring of 1524 the ImperiaHsts were reinforced 
by 6000 Germans, and Bourbon then took the offensive. 
A desperate struggle took place on the banks of the Sesia 
in Piedmont, which cost the life of the illustrious French 
knight. Bayard — " le chevalier sans peur et sans reproche ". 

The Emperor then gave orders for the invasion of 
France. Bourbon besieged Marseilles, but was forced to 
make a disorderly retreat over the Alps, closely followed 
by the French army under the personal command of 
Francois I. This time the French entered Milan without 
opposition; but instead of vigorously pursuing his advan- 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). 11/ 

tage, Francois detached 12,000 men from liis army to go 
and take possession of the kingdom of Naples, whilst he 
himself undertook the siege of Pavia, not reflecting that 
he was thus giving time for the three clever imperial 
generals — Bourbon, Lannoy, and Pescara — to assemble 
fresh troops — far superior to his in numbers — behind him. 

With these they dashed upon his lines at Pavia, 24th Pavia, 
February, 1525. A terrible battle ensued; and Fran- 1525. 
fois, obliged to defend himself on foot, was wounded in 
several places. At last, relinquishing his sword to Lan- 
noy, he wrote in brief words to his mother: "All is lost, 
madame, save honor ". 

Carried to Madrid as a prisoner, Francois hoped for 
at least fair treatment at the hands of his conqueror. 
But Charles kept him in prison, and treated him so se- 
verely that he became quite ill, and even at one time 
thought of abdicating his throne. 

Charles at last consented to conclude a Treaty at Treaty of 
Madrid, by which his rival gave up all his rights to 1526. 
Naples and Milan, ceded Burgundy to the Emperor, 
promised to replace the Constable de Bourbon in his 
command, and gave up his two sons as hostages. 

Before concluding the Treaty of Madrid, Francois I. 
had protested secretly against the ill treatment he had 
received from his enemies. Scarcely had he entered his 
kingdom when he refused to give up Burgundy, excus- 
ing himself by saying that a king had no right to ahenate 
the country without the consent of the States-General. 
Pope Clement VII. (Medici) — who would have hked to 
see the overthrow of Spain — released Francois from his 
parole, and a "holy league " was entered into between 
France,^ England, and most of the ItaHan States. But 

1 Henry VIII. had become alarmed at the increasing power of 
Germany, and drew back from Charles. Italy, fearing Spain, 
turned once more to France and offered assistance to Fran9ois. 



Il8 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Siege of the coalition lacked energy. Francois was not suffi- 
1527. ' ciently prompt in action. Rome was besieged by a band 
of German mercenaries in the pay of Charles V., led by 
the Constable de Bourbon and the former condottiere, 
Georges von Freundsberg, carrjdng, as it is said, a chain 
of gold round his neck with which to strangle the Pope! 
Bourbon gave the order of assault, but was killed himself; 
and his soldiers, left to their own devices, gave them- 
selves up to the most horrible pillage. All Europe pro- 
tested indignantly against the Emperor, when the news 
of the sack of Rome reached them; but Charles denied 
the accusation, saying he knew nothing of it. At the 
same time, he neither punished any one concerned, nor 
put a stop to the violent outrages following the siege. 
Treaty of At last, tired with the struggle, the King of France 
1559. ' concluded the Treaty of Cambrai, which leaves an in- 
dehble stain on his reputation. The Emperor did not 
exact the cession of Burgundy, but Francois renounced 
all claim to Milan and Naples, and completely aban- 
doned his alHes in Italy, leaving a fatal renown for per- 
fidy, and losing forever the confidence of the Italians. 

Nothing then remained to the Pope but reluctantly to 
reconcile himself with Charles V., and crown him Em- 
peror and King of Italy at Bologna, which he agreed to 
do, on condition that the Medici should be re-estabUshed 
in Florence under the title of dukes. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

During this time Solyman the Turk invaded Hungary, Soiyman 
and his fleets devastated the coasts of Italy. A cry of nificenf." 
indignation was raised against the King of France, who 
had called the Turks into Europe, and a general war 
broke out. 

Whilst Charles V. and Henry VIII. invaded France, General 

War. 

the alHes of Francois — James V. of Scotland and Soly- 
man the Magnificent — invaded England and Hungary 
espectively. 

But the Emperor became uneasy at the progress of 
the Lutherans in Germany during his absence in other 
countries; and fearing that his Empire would be disin- 
tegrated with all the confusion and strife, he signed the 
Peace of Crespy, in the north of France, near Laon, by Peace of 
which Fran5:ois I. kept Savoy, and Charles V. Milan. 1544. 
Henry VIII. also made peace, and died shortly after- 
wards, Francois I. only surviving him one year. 1547. 

The reign of Solyman the Magnificent, 1 520-1566, is 1520 to 
a striking epoch in Turkish history. He inaugurated 
his reign by taldng Belgrade and Rhodes; when Charles 
V. gave to the brave Knights of Rhodes the Island of 
Malta, from which stronghold they continued to keep the 
Turks at bay in the Mediterranean, and where they 
were afterwards known as the Knights of Malta. 

The Sultan next attacked Hungary, and won a great Mohatz. 
victory at Mohatz, in which the distinguished King Lud- 
wig II. perished. As he left no child, the crown passed 
to his brother-in-law, Ferdinand of Austria, brother of 

119 



I20 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Siege of 
Vienna, 
1530. 



Solyman 

and 

Charles 

v., 1532. 

Turkish 

Inroads. 



Charles V.; and this is the origin of the rights of the 
House of Austria over Bohemia and Hungary. Ferdi- 
nand took immediate possession of Bohemia; but before 
he could do the same in Hungary, he had to encounter 
strong opposition from the Turks, who once more in- 
vaded the country, and even advanced to besiege Vienna. 

Twenty times the terrible Janissaries ^ led the attack, 
and strove to gain an entrance into the town; twenty 
times they were repulsed by the gallant garrison, and the 
enraged Sultan was forced at last to give up the siege. 

Two years afterwards, Solyman the Magnificent again 
took the field against Austria, at the head of 200,000 
men. Charles V. met him with 100,000, and for the first 
time the two renowned warriors met in person. Never 
since the Crusades had the Christians assembled in such 
forces. Lutherans and Roman Catholics alike joined 
hands against the Mussulmans. Nevertheless, little 
result followed. At the approach of winter, Solyman 
retired to his capital, Constantinople, carrying with him 
a large number of unfortunate prisoners as slaves; and 
the greater part of Southern Hungary remained in the 
power of the Turks. The Austrians only kept Northern 
Hungar}^, Presberg, and its em^irons. 

Scarcely had the Mussulman invasion been arrested 
in Hungary when new depredations by the Turks on the 
shores of the Mediterranean gave cause for a fresh ex- 
pedition to the reHef of the Christians. 

Two brothers, named Horuc and Chereddin Barba- 
rossa, had made themselves masters of Algiers and Tu- 
nis; and, encouraged by their success, they continued 
to ravage the shores of Italy and Spain. 

Charles V. undertook the personal command of two 

^Janissaries {yUni tcheri^ new soldiers) — an order of infantry 
in the Turkish army ; originally young Christian prisoners trained 
to arms by Orcan, father of Amurath I. 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). 121 

expeditions against them. In the first he captured Capture 
Galetta. Tunis surrendered, and 20,000 Christian 1535. 
galley-slaves were delivered from slavery and taken back 
to their country at the expense of the Emperor, making 
all Europe ring with the praises of Charles V. 

Six years later the Emperor made a similar attempt Attempt 
on Algiers; but such a tempest arose that many of the Algiers, 
ships were engulfed with all on board — men, arms, and 
provisions — and Charles had some diflSculty in getting 
back to his own kingdom in safety. 

During the last years of Solyman's Hfe he was wholly 
absorbed by gloomy domestic tragedies, which owed 
their origin to his favorite wife, Roxelana, and her fa- 
vorites; and Charles V. had no more to fear from his 
invasions, but was able to turn his entire attention to- 
wards the great question of religious reform then agi- 
tating all Europe. 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 

CHAPTER XXXin. 

All attempts at a general religious reformation during 
the' Middle Ages by the Vaudois, Wi cliff, John Huss, and 
the great Councils of Constance and Basel, had miser- 
ably failed, and the abuses and disorders of the Church 
were constantly on the increase. The evil had become 
so crying, and the discontent so universal, that any 
slight accident was sufficient to cause an explosion. 
Savon- xhe seed of reformed doctrines was sown by such men 

arola. •' 

as Lorenzo Valla and Savonarola at Florence, Reuchlm 
at Tubingen, Uhich von Hiitten, and the famous Eras- 
mus of Rotterdam, professor at Basel (of whom it is said, 
"Erasmus laid the egg of Reformation, and Luther 
hatched it"), and it only needed the dogmatic force and 
indomitable courage of Luther to awaken it to active life. 

MARTIN LUTHER. 

Martin In the village of Mora in Thuringia there lived in a 

Luther. ^ ... 

poor miner's hut a man named Luther, with his vdfe 
Margaret Lindeman. Both were earnest, quiet people; 
but finding it difficult to earn a Hving in the country, 
they moved to Eisleben in Saxony, and settled them- 
Birth, selves there; and on November loth, 1483, a little son 

was born, whom they named Martin. Shortly after his 
birth the family moved once more to Mansfeld, where at 
last things prospered better with them, and the father 
made himself so much respected that he was chosen to 

122 



1483. 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 12 3 

the office of town-councillor. Little Martin proved to 
be a clever, diligent child, and his father sent him early 
to school, in bad weather carrying him there himself on 
his shoulders. The boy made such rapid progress that 
at the age of fourteen he was promoted to the higher 
school of Magdeburg, and later on to that of Eisenach. 
Being very poor, Martin was obhged to earn his bread 
by singing in the streets before the houses of rich fami- 
nes in Eisenach; and on one occasion he attracted the 
attention of Frau Cotta, who took him into her house, 
and cared for him for some years as if he had been her 
own son. 

At eighteen years of age he went to study in the Uni- 
versity of Erfurt; and from thence he paid occasional 
visits to his parents. One day he was returning to the 
city accompanied by his great friend Alexius, when they 
were overtaken by a terrible storm of thunder and Hght- 
ning, and Alexius was struck dead by his side. Martin 
was greatly overcome by the shock, and exclaimed, 
"Had I been in his place, I should now be before the 
Judgment Seat of God! How would it then have been 
with me? I must lead a better hfe in future." On ar- 
riving at Erfurt, he went straight to the Augustinian 
cloister and took the vows, thinking that, once a monk, 
all his sins would be forgiven him. The cloister-Hfe was 
very rough; he was put to the hardest work, and was 
obhged to carry the begging-sack for the community 
round the town. On one of these expeditions he dis- 
covered a copy of the Bible chained to a desk, and read 
it" with the deepest interest and reverence. He was filled 
with dehght and joy, and after two years of thought- 
ful study and meditation, he determined to be or- 
dained priest. Frederic the Wise, Elector of Saxony, Univer- 
had just founded the University of Wittemberg, and, Wrttem- 
hearing of the learning of Luther, he promoted him 1508'. 



124 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Melanc- 
thon. 



Indul- 
gences, 
1517. 



Ninety- 
five .^ ■* 
Theses, 
1517. 



Cardinal 
Cajetano, 
1 5 18. 



to be Professor of Philosophy, and pastor of the Castle 
Church, Luther being at the time twenty-six years of 
age. He found a friend and fellow-worker in a young 
student named Schwarzerde, who, according to the habit 
of the time, translated his name "black-earth" into 
Greek, and is known to us as Melancthon. He had been 
educated by his uncle Reuchhn, the famous master of 
classical languages and philosophy. At sixteen Me- 
lancthon had published a Greek Grammar; at seven- 
teen he was giving lectures in the University of Tubin- 
gen, and at twenty-one was called to be a Professor at 
Wittemberg. The characters of the two young men 
were admirably adapted to make them friends. Each 
formed the complement of the other; Martin Luther was 
a man of action, Melancthon, a man of letters, full of 
thought and meditation; Luther was the Apostle, Me- 
lancthon, the Theologian of the Reformation. 

At this time Pope Leo X. proclaimed the sale of in- 
dulgences, and sent the monk Tetsel round the country 
to sell them; he carried two satchels strapped round his 
neck, one containing the indulgences, and the other 
money. When Luther preached confession and repent- 
ance for sins to the people, their reply was, "We have 
already got our absolution from Tetsel, and our sins are 
all forgiven". Luther could not endure this, and he 
wrote out ninety-five Theses against the errors of the 
Papacy, and fastened them to the church door at Wit- 
temberg, October 31st, 151 7. Like wild-fire the news 
spread throughout Germany and Europe. The Pope 
summoned Luther before him ; but his powerful friends, 
the Emperor MaximiHan I. and Frederic the Wise, 
Elector of Saxony, would not allow him to take the jour- 
ney to Rome; they arranged instead that Cardinal Caje- 
tano, the Papal legate, should meet Luther at Augsburg. 
No good result, however, attended the conference, al- 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 1 25 

thougli some say that Miltitz, the Pope's chamberlain, 
exacted a conditional promise from Luther that he 
would keep silence on the disputed points. 

The following year saw the death of the Emperor Max- 
imilian, and the accession of his grandson, Charles V. 
At Leipsic, Luther and his colleague, Carlstadt, were Eck at 
confronted with a formidable opponent in Dr. Eck, who 1519 
accused them of sharing the errors of the Hussites, and 
warned them that the Hussites had been condemned as 
heretics at the Council of Constance. After repeated 
discussions and stormy accusations from Luther against 
the Papacy, which he called a "devil's nest," Luther 
was formally excommunicated. He burnt the Bull con- Burning 

. . , 1 1 r 1 1 r TTT- *^e Bull, 

taming the sentence openly before the students of Wit- 1520. 
temberg, and defied the Pope. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

The reigning Emperor Charles V. — grieved at the con- 
test, and desirous to make peace — summoned a conclave 
Council of of princes and bishops to meet at Worms. On receiving 
1 52 1. the invitation to confront his opponents at that place, 

Luther's reply was, "He could not unsay what he had 
already stated and written ; but that he would attend the 
Diet if a safe-conduct were granted to him". This was 
promised; but his friends were uneasy on his account, 
and begged him to remember the burning of John Huss, 
and to desist from the journey. Luther's bold reply was, 
"If they were to light a fire which should reach as far as 
from Wittemberg to Worms and as high as the heavens, 
still I would gol" Alone with one friend, he started in 
a carriage, the imperial herald riding in front. Half way 
he was once more implored to give up the dangerous ex- 
pedition; but he only reiterated, "If there were as many 
devils in Worms as there are tiles on the house-top, still 
I would go!" He occupied part of the journey by com- 
posing the well-known German hymn, " Eine feste Burg 
ist unser Gott ". Arrived at Worms, Luther was con- 
ducted to the Council Chamber, where the Emperor and 
his advisers with twelve hundred learned men were col- 
lected. On a table lay copies of Luther's works. After 
a long and compKcated discussion, he was called upon 
to recant, and he asked for twenty-four hours for con- 
sideration. This being granted, the next day he was 
returning to the Council when General Georges von 
Freundsberg tapped him on the shoulder, exclaiming, 

126 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 12/ 

"Little monk! little monk! you are going in for a 
harder conflict than either I myself or any of my of&cers 
have ever engaged in; but if you have made up your 
mind that your doctrines are true, go on in God's name, 
and be assured that He will never forsake you!" In a 
speech lasting two hours, Luther set forth his views ; and 
when his judges again insisted on his recantation, he 
made his celebrated reply, "If this work is man's work 
it will fall by itself; but if it is from God nothing can 
destroy it. I neither can nor dare retract what I beheve 
to be the truth as revealed in Holy Scripture; on this 
I take my stand; I can do no othermse, so help me God. 
Amen." The Council was ended, and Luther was al- 
lowed to depart; but the "ban of the Empire" was read 
over him (i.e., he was outlawed, and after the space of 
twenty-one days, any one would be free to put the dan- 
gerous monk to death). On his way home Luther was 
seized by a band of armed men, said to have been com- 
missioned by his friend, the Elector of Saxony, to place 
him in a position of safety. He was carried off to the 
Castle of Wartburg in the mountains near Eisenach, Wartburg 
where he Hved for nine months, concealed in the dress 
of a common knight, and called "Junker Georg". He 
occupied a great portion of his time in making a trans- 
lation of the New Testament into German. 

The outrageous conduct of his friend Carlstadt, and 
other extreme reformers in Wittemberg, did no good to 
Luther's cause; and when Luther heard that they were 
breaking images, burning books, etc., he left his retreat 
at Wartburg, and once more appeared at Wittemberg 
to restore order. 

More alarming, however, than the outbreak at Wittem- Peasants' 
berg was the rebellion of the German peasants, who, to 1527. 
mistaking the freedom of reHgion promised to them by 
Luther for the freedom of their vested rights, armed them- 



128 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Marriage 
of Luther, 
1524. 



Protestant 
Princes. 



selves and declared war. In vain Luther attempted to 
bring them to reason. All was useless; they went from 
place to place, breaking into convents, monasteries, 
castles, and perpetrating horrible cruelties. The princes 
assembled an army against them, and they were sub- 
dued at last, but not without a war lasting two years, and 
the destruction of 30,000 peasants. 

Meanwhile Luther continued to live as pastor and pro- 
fessor at Wittemberg. In 1524 he had thrown off his 
monk's robe and married Catherine von Bora, a nun. 
Six children were born to them. He worked steadily for 
the Reformation, compiled two catechisms, a Church 
service, and a collection of hymns, to which he added 
many beautiful ones of his own; he also made a trans- 
lation of the Old Testament. 

Several of the German princes, amongst whom were 
Frederic the Wise, Elector of Saxony; Phihp, Landgraf 
of Hesse; the Duke of Mecklenburg, and Albert, Grand- 
master of the Teutonic Knights and Duke of Branden- 
burg, became Lutheran. But his enemies were power- 
ful, and continually wearied the Emperor vnth com- 
plaints and accusations. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

Charles V., finding the cares of his gigantic domin- Division 
ions too much for one person to superintend, had dele- Kingdom, 
gated the Eastern Kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia 
with Austria to his brother Ferdinand in 1522, and him- 
self chiefly resided in Spain. 

Troubled, however, by the ceaseless conflicts on re- Diet of 
ligious matters, which kept Europe in a ferment, and 1529.^' 
hearing that the Turks made constant inroads on Hun- 
gary, Charles summoned a Diet at Speier (Spires), to 
discuss measures for keeping them in check; with the 
idea of smoothing down every difference, and uniting 
all parties in one common cause, — a Crusade against Name 

. , . , ^ . . "Protes- 

the Turks. Agamst this measure the Lutheran prmces tant". 
and fourteen imperial free cities entered such a stern 
protest that they earned the name, so frequently mis- 
used in later times, of "Protestants ". 

Another Council of Augsburg was convoked for the Council of 
next year, at which Charles V. presided in person. He 1530. 
strove in every possible way to bring about an under- 
standing. The Lutherans were allowed to speak freely 
in favor of their rehgious creed. They desired to show 
that their doctrines were those of no new reHgion, but 
only the casting out of the errors of their former creed; 
and for this purpose Melancthon, the gentle friend of 
Luther, drew up the celebrated "Confession of Augs- 
burg ". It is said that his opponents insisted that the 
reading of this confession should take place in a little 
chapel, which only held 120 persons. The weather, how- 

129 



130 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

ever, being warm and the windows open, the voice of the 
reader was clearly audible to the vast concourse of peo- 
ple outside, who were astonished at the enunciation of 
the new doctrines thus heard for the first time. The 
Confession was condemned by the Diet and the Em- 
peror; but the determined attitude of the Protestants 
caused Charles to waver in his verdict, not Hking to es- 
League of trange so many of his powerful subjects. The Protes- 
kaide, 1531. taut priuccs on their side, dismayed at the threats of the 
League.^^^ Emperor, and seeing that nothing would now serve their 
purpose but war, entered into a League at Schmalkalde 
(in Thuringia) for mutual protection. In opposition 
to this League the Roman CathoHc princes formed the 
Nuremberg League. Francois I., King of France, of- 
fered to join the Protestant League of Schmalkalde out 
of hatred to Charles V. ; but Luther indignantly refused, 
declaring that "the Empire would be distracted, and it 
and the Gospel would go to wreck together ". 

At this time Charles V. wanted to crown his brother 
Ferdinand "King of the Romans," but he encountered 
quite an unexpected opposition from the Roman Catho- 
Hc States, on which he had always reckoned as his firm 
supporters. This circumstance, combined with the fear 
of fresh inroads by the Turks, decided the Emperor 
to put off for the moment any definite decision on the 
Religious reHgious question. A treaty was signed at Nuremberg, 
NUrem-^ Called the Religious Peace, when the Emperor offered 

Jeal' toleration to the Protestants on condition that thev 

1532. 

would help him in his war with the Turks, and give their 
votes for the election of his brother Ferdinand as King 
of the Romans. The Protestants promised their help, 
and Charles undertook the expedition, which ended in 
the repulse of Solyman the Magnificent in Austria. 
Thus momentarily delivered from the Turks, Charles 
thought he might break faith with the Lutherans; but 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. I3I 

the attacks of the Kings of France on his western fron- 
tier obliged him to renew the promise of peace with the 
Lutheran party. During the ten years which followed, 
the Emperor, absorbed by war, set aside altogether the 
religious question, and the Reformation — left to itself — 
made great progress. 

Not only in Germany, but throughout Europe, the other 
doctrines were spread by such able men as Ulrich Zwin- 
gli of Zurich in Switzerland, Jean Chauvin (Calvin) in 
France and Geneva, Lefevre and Farel in France and 
Neuchatel, Cranmer and Edward VI. in England, John 
Knox (a disciple of Calvin) in Scotland, Gustavus Vasa 
in Sweden, etc. 

The Lutheran doctrines spread throughout the he- Lutherans, 
reditary States of Hapsburg, Austria, Stjnria, Carinthia, 
and Bohemia, and in the German portion of Hungary 
and Transylvania, where they became mingled with the 
former doctrines of the Hussites. 

Calvinism was generally adopted by the Swiss, caivmists. 
French, and Magyars. The Calvinists and Lutherans 
separated in 1561, when the former rejected some of the 
Articles of the Confession of Augsburg. In France they 
were known as Huguenots. Huguenots. 

Poland furnished an asylum for both Lutherans and 
Calvinists; whilst Prussia, the land of the Teutonic 
knights, Livonia and Courland, accepted the Lutheran 
Reformation in 1525, following the example of the Grand- 
master of the Teutonic Order, Albert of Brandenburg. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

Peace of In 1 545, Charlcs V. concluded a treaty of five years 

1545. ' with the Turks, and terminated the war with Francois 

I. of France at the Peace of Crespy, so that nothing pre- 
vented him from turning his attention vigorously to the 
Co^ncU of Reformation. He persuaded Pope Paul III. to call the 
to 1563. Council of Trent, which he hoped would put an end to 
all rehgious difl&culties and stop the general abuses in 
the Church. But the Protestants refused to appear. 
It was not such a Council as they desired. They wished 
for an assembly which should be composed of equal num- 
bers of theologians on both sides, and an impartial tri- 
bunal not presided over by the Pope. The Council of 
Trent was entirely composed of Roman Catholic prel- 
ates, acting under the direction of the Papal See, and 
expecting the Protestants to appear before them — not 
schfsm ^^ dehberate — but to be judged by them. Their doc- 

1546. trines being then condemned by the Council of Trent, 
the Lutherans refused to submit to the sentence, and the 
Great Schism of the sixteenth century took place. 

Luther°^ Luthcr did not live to see the war, which he had 

FeK 18, sadly foretold must take place. He died after a short 
illness at his native town of Eisleben. As he himself 
said, " The world is weary of me, and I of the world ". 
He was a warm-hearted, affectionate man, blunt in man- 
ner, and speaking out too freely at times, but always to 
the point; and his noble courage, singleness of heart, and 
generous fervor for religion made him rank as the great- 
est of all reformers.* His followers, taking their names 

^ Great as Luther was as a reformer, we should recollect that 
he made two great mistakes, which cut at the root of Church 

132 



THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. I33 

from their leaders, divided into three principal branches, ]^J^^J^g^g^_^'^^- 
Lutherans, ZwingHans, and Calvinists. The Luther- tants. 

' ^ ' 1^1' Reformed. 

ans still preserved the name of Protestants; the Calvm- PhiUppists. 
ists called themselves the Reformed; the followers of 
Melancthon are known as Philippists. 

As the Protestant princes refused to submit to the 
Council of Trent, or to dissolve the League of Schmal- 
kalde, war was proclaimed in 1546. The leaders of the 1546. 
Schmalkaldic League, John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, 
and Philip, Landgraf of Hesse, took the field; but 
an unexpected defection in their camp weakened the 
League. Maurice, Duke of Saxony, one of the Schmal- Treachery 

, . 1 . 1 . 1 r 1 T^ 1 o* Maurice 

kaldic pnnces, havmg obtamed from the Emperor the of Saxony. 
promise of the Electorate of Saxony (which belonged to 
his cousin the Protestant prince John Frederic), aban- 
doned his co-religionists and entered into an alliance 
with Charles V. The Protestants, thus betrayed by one 
of their strongest allies, were unable to resist the im- 
perial forces. The Elector of Saxony was defeated at 
Muhlberg on the Elbe, made prisoner, judged, and con- Miihiberg. 
demned to death by Charles V. He only saved his life 
by abdicating in favor of Maurice, and the electoral dig- 
nity thus passed from the elder branch (Ernestine) to Ernestine 

• \ mi T-i • 11 ^^^ Alber- 

the younger branch (Albertme) . The Ernestme branch tine Lines, 
only kept the ducal title, with a small portion of its an- 
cient possessions. As for the unfortunate John Frederic, 
he had to endure a long and tedious captivity. The 
Landgraf of Hesse, encouraged by the promises of his 
son-in-law, Duke Maurice, decided to send in his sub- 
mission to the Emperor; but the promises made to him 

principles: I. He adopted the doctrine of justification by faith 
alone, XL He set aside the succession of consecrated bishops 
and clergy of fifteen hundred years, and chose to assert his 
personal consecration as valid, setting aside all ecclesiastical 
orm and order in favor of his own views and desires. 



134 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Interim or 
Diet of 
Augsburg, 
1548. 



Philip of 
Austria. 



were never kept, he was treated even worse than the 
Elector, and dragged about from place to place in the 
suite of Charles V. 

In spite of his severity towards the leaders of the re- 
formed party, Charles did not prevent the Protestants 
from celebrating their sacred rites; nor would he allow 
the inhuman Duke of Alva to exhume the body of Lu- 
ther, saying, ''Let him sleep in peace; he has already 
met with his judge; I do not make war with the dead ". 
The Emperor earnestly desired for his own interests to 
put an end to the schism, and re-estabHsh unity in Ger- 
many. To this end he pressed the Protestants to recog- 
nize the Council of Trent. But even Pope Benedict 
XIV., who began to fear the growing power of Charles 
v., turned against him and kept on proroguing the Coun- 
cil on futile pretexts. 

Angered with the Pope for his defection, Charles re- 
solved to put an end to the question. He called a Diet 
at Augsburg in 1548, made a provisional convention, by 
which he allowed to the Protestants the Communion in 
both kinds, and the marriage of priests, but insisted on 
their otherwise submitting to the power of the Pope. 
Both parties demurred at this decision. The Pope was 
indignant that the Emperor should meddle with his spir- 
itual affairs; the Protestants declared that the most es- 
sential parts of their creed were denied to them. All 
these events caused the greatest sensation throughout 
Germany. Even the Roman Cathohc princes them- 
selves saw v^th anxiety that the Emperor was really 
abusing his authority; and the general feeling of irrita- 
tion was even shared by Charles's brother, Ferdinand, 
King of Hungary and Bohemia, whose rights Charles was 
proposing to set aside in favor of his own son, PhiKp. 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA 

CHAPTER XXXVII. 

LAST YEARS OF CHARLES V. 

No prince, however, was so impatient of the imperial ^lurice of 
despotism as Maurice of Saxony, although he owed his Saxony, 
powerful position to the favoritism of Charles V. 
Seeing the necessity of reinstating himself in the eyes of 
his co-religionists, who attributed all their misfortunes 
to his defection, he resolved to side again with the Refor- 
mation and Hberty in Germany. He therefore made a 
secret alliance with Henri 11. of France (son and suc- 
cessor of Francois L), by which it was arranged that 
Henri should receive the three frontier bishoprics of 
Lorraine — Toul, Metz, and Verdun — and make him- 
self master of them, whilst Maurice should march into 
Tyrol. The latter possessed the entire confidence of 
Charles V., who had confided to him the management 
of the siege of Magdeburg, and thus placed a large por- 
tion of the army completely under his control. The 
Emperor was at Innsbruck, unsuspicious of any evil. 
Suddenly Maurice threw off the mask, and published a 
manifesto, declaring that he took up arms against the 
Emperor for three reasons — 

1. To secure the Protestant religion. 

2. To maintain the German constitution. 

3. To deHver the Landgraf of Hesse, his father-in- 

law, from prison. 

135 



136 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Treaty of 

Passau, 

1552. 



1555. 
Religious 
Peace of 
Augsburg. 



At the head of a large body of troops, Maurice hurried 
by forced marches to surprise the Emperor at Inns- 
bruck. A mutiny amongst the soldiers, who demanded 
their pay, delayed Maurice a few hours, and just 
allowed time for Charles V., ill and suffering as he 
was with gout, to escape. In the middle of the night, 
and in pouring rain, he was carried in a Utter over the 
steep and intricate mountain paths which led into Ca- 
rinthia, and thus saved from actually falHng into the 
hands of his rebelhous subjects. But this determined 
coup de main on Maurice's part forced the Emperor to 
come to terms, and a peace was concluded at Passau. 
The captive princes were set at Hberty, the Landgraf of 
Hesse received back his estates, and the sons of John 
Frederic were allowed to retain his domains in Thurin- 
gia. One essential feature of the treaty was that the 
States which had subscribed to the Confession of Augs- 
burg (not other Protestants) were granted complete 
Hberty of life and creed. 

Three years later, the peace was confirmed at another 
Diet at Augsburg, when the same States received not only 
Hberty of rehgion but also the same political rights as 
the Roman CathoHcs, and were once more put in pos- 
session of the ecclesiastical revenues of which they had 
been deprived. 

For some time, an adverse statute called the " Eccle- 
siastical Reserve" was retained against these Protes- 
tant rights, but a few years afterwards it was cancelled at 
the Treaty of WestphaHa (1648). 

• After the Treaties of Passau and Augsburg, the Em- 
peror tried to win back the three bishoprics from the 
grasp of Henri II., but he met with such a determined 
resistance at Metz from the Duke of Guise, who was 
defending the place, that he was obHged to retire, ex- 
claiming, " I see clearly that fortune does not favor old 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. I 37 

people!" and Metz remained in the hands of the French 
till 1 87 1. So many reverses completely overwhelmed 
Charles V. He saw his vast projects makinsr shipwreck Abdication 

r 1 1 ^ 11 1 1 T 1 • 1 of Charles 

one after the other. On the one hand, he had neither v., 1556. 
crushed France nor subjugated the Turks; and on the 
other, he had neither annihilated the Reformation nor 
raised the imperial power. With advancing years, en- 
feebled by sorrows and disease, the old Emperor longed 
for a little repose. He abdicated in favor of his son 
PhiUp n., who entered into possession of Spain, the Two 
Sicihes, Milan, the Low Countries, Franche-Comte, as 
well as the newly discovered American colonies; whilst 
his brother Ferdinand kept the Austrian estates, and 
received the imperial crown of Germany. 

From this time the House of Hapsburg is divided into 
two lines: the elder branch, representing the Hapsburgs 
in Spain; and the younger, the Hapsburgs in Germany. 
Charles V. retired to the Monastery of San Just, amongst 
the chestnut groves of Estramadura, where he spent the 
two last years of his life in devotional exercises, and 
amusing himself with gardening and watchmaking. On 
one occasion, having taken untold pains to make two 
watches work exactly alike, and faihng, he exclaimed 
sadly, " If I cannot succeed in this, how fooHsh was I to 
think I could make the minds of a million men think 
ahkel" It is said that he caused his own funeral service 1558. 
to be celebrated, and caught a chill from lying in his cof- 
fin. Fever came on, and he died in 1558, at the age of 
fifty-nine. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 



Turks' 
Invasion of 
Hungary, 
1566. 



Szigeth. 
Zrinyi. 



Ferdinand Charles V. was foUowed by his brother, the Emperor 
Ferdinand I., whose mild and gentle rule made him 
much beloved by his subjects, in spite of their various 

MaximiUan nationalities; as was also his son and successor, Maxi- 
milian II., called the Peaceful, because he could not 
bear to engage in warfare. 

Quite at the beginning of his reign the old Turkish 
Sultan, Solyman, the great enemy of all Christendom, 
once again conceived the idea of seizing Vienna, and 
took the field with 200,000 men, opening the campaign 
by a decided march into Hungary. But his advance was 
checked by the heroic resistance of the Hungarian for- 
tress Szigeth, which held out against him under its bold 
governor, Count Niklas Zrinp. Zrinyi's handful of 
warriors had sworn to support their leader, and share 
whatever fate might betide him. The town was stormed 
twenty times, and the little band had shrunk to 100 men; 
all around lay ruins; the upper castle — their last strong- 
hold — was already in flames. Then Zrinyi, like a sec- 
ond Leonidas, dashed forth at the head of the remnant 
of his army, flung himself into the midst of the astounded 
enemy, and with his men died a hero's death "for Em- 
peror and Fatherland ". When at last the enemy took 
possession of the smoking remains of the forsaken castle, 
the powder magazine caught fire, blew up, and sent 
2000 Turks into the air. The damage done to the 
Turkish forces before Szigeth was irreparable, and Soly- 
man had not even the gratification of living to take pos- 
session of the place, for he died two days before the event, 
in his camp. Solyman's followers were not warHke, 
and a peace was established which lasted many years. 

138 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

On Maximilian II.'s death, Rodolf II., his son, as- Rodoif 
cended the throne; a man full of love for art and sci- 
ence, but too weak in character to control the stormy 
elements of his kingdom. He had already been pro- 
claimed King of Hungary in 1572, and King of Bohemia 
in 1575. The struggles between Roman Catholics and 
Protestants were still disturbing the whole Empire; and 
Rodolf, perplexed and worried with the various ques- 
tions which he did not care to enter into, at last surren- 
dered to his brother Matthias the kingdoms of Hungary 
and Austria. In order not to lose his hold over Bohe- charter of 
mia, he took the side of the Protestant cause, and in 1609 1609. 
proclaimed religious Hberty, and gave the inhabitants a 
charter, called the Charter of Liberty, by which they 
received permission to build churches and schools, and 
carry out their reHgious observances. Bohemia and 
Silesia were, however, 3aelded up to his brother in 1611; 1611. 
and just when the Electors had determined to depose 
Rodolf, he died, and his brother Matthias replaced him 
as Emperor. 

During the reign of Matthias the Protestants of Bo- Matthias, 
hemia went further even than their charter of liberty 
allowed; and the Protestant dependants of the Arch- 
bishop of Prague and of the Abbot of Braunaw, having 
built some new churches, drew upon themselves the in- 
dignation of the Roman CathoHcs, who pulled down two 
of them and placed the others under lock and key. 

139 



140 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Thirty An army was quickly called together to quell the dis- 

War, 1618. turbance, and placed under the command of Count 
Thurm. At this crisis, the Emperor Matthias died, and 
j"$l^^^%. his cousin, Ferdinand II., King of Hungary and Bo- 
hemia, a grandson of Ferdinand L, succeeded him, prov- 
ing himself at once a powerful and active regent, but a 
stern Roman Catholic. 



GEEMAN EmiEE 

XVII Century;, 

Scale of Miles 




CHAPTER XL. 

THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

Germany had been the first cradle of the Reformation 
and the principal seat of rehgious warfare. The divi- 
sion of Charles V.'s dominions weakened the CathoHc 
party, the German States tolerated the Reformation, and 
Austria gradually accepted it. 

There was a violent reaction on the part of the Roman- 
ists in Spain, under PhiHp II., but it was kept somewhat 
in check by the attitude of the Reformed Church in the 
Netherlands. 

The division of the Empire would have seemed fa- 
vorable to the balance of power, but PhiHp II. 's pos- 
sessions were almost as colossal as his father's, and his 
ambitious and dominating character caused more anx- 
iety in Europe. 

The double nature of political and religious warfare 
so noticeable in the sixteenth century changed somewhat 
in the seventeenth, when, although religion was often 
made the pretext, pohtical interest was really the pre- 
dominating motive. 

The system of absolute monarchy which had begun 
in the Middle Ages reached its height in the downfall of 
the feudal system, and the absolutism in France of Louis 
XIV.'s reign. The same absolutism was attempted in 
England, but was overthrown by the Revolution. 

The idea of European equihbrium was more clearly 
formahzed, and the two powers of Spain and Turkey 

141 



142 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

which had threatened it in the sixteenth century were 
distinctly on the decHne. 

The Scandinavian States (Norway, Sweden and Den- 
mark) began to take a prominent place in history. The 
Thirty Years' War and the EngHsh Revolution are the 
two great events of the first half of the seventeenth cen- 
tury. To these we may add later the struggle in the 
North between Sweden, Poland and Russia; but 
amongst all these the Thirty Years' War holds the most 
important position. Germany became the centre of 
diplomatic and mihtary warfare. The war itself was 
both poKtical and rehgious. Its origin was, appar- 
ently, only the insurrection of one people (Bohemia) 
against its sovereign, roused by a matter of rehgious and 
cruel discord in the centre of the Austrian States; but 
very soon the question assumed such proportions that 
all the countries of Europe were drawn into the quarrel, 
and it became simply a tremendous political struggle for 
supremacy. 

ISiip'ii. ^^ Spain and the Netherlands Phihp II., the stern, 
crafty, cold-hearted husband of the English Mary 
Tudor, ruled with gloomy severity, upholding the In- 
quisition and carrying on the bloody wars in the Low 

i^^t<=^,. Countries under Alva's generalship, which resulted in 

Republic. * ^' 

the revolt of the provinces and the later formation of the 
Dutch RepubHc. (1713.) 

The seventeenth century in England is marked by 
the stormy reigns of the Stuarts and the Civil Wars re- 
sulting in the Revolution and Restoration, and the es- 
tablishment of the English Protestant Church. 
Saxony. j^ Germany the position was much what it had been 

in the last century: the Albertine branch of the House 
of Saxony had acquired the Electorate, and the German 
House of Hapsburg was in possession of Bohemia and 
Northern Hungary. 



CHAPTER XLI. 

THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 

DURING THE REIGNS OF THE EMPERORS MATTHIAS, 
FERDINAND II., AND FERDINAND III. 

Four Periods. Thirty 

Years' 

1 618-1623. — (i) Palatine or Bohemian Period. S^Ye'/s^^^ 

Frederic, Elector Palatine, the] 

"Winter King" - - - -!- Protestant. 

Count Mansfeld - - - -J 

Duke MaximiHan of Bavaria - - ) _, 

-n rr^-n h Romamst. 

Baron Tilly - - - - - ) 

1625-1629. — (2) Danish Period. 

Christian IV. of Denmark - - - Protestant. 

Wallenstein _ _ _ _ _ Romanist. 

Treaty of Liibeck, 1629. 
1630-1635. — (3) Swedish Period. 

Gustavus Adolphus, the "Snowl 

King" ----- j- Protestant. 

. ... ' 

Oxenstiern, Swedish Minister - - J 

Wallenstein and Tilly _ _ _ Romanist. 

Treaty of Prague, 1635. 
1 63 5-1 648. — (4) French-Swedish Period. 

Torstenson, Swedish General - - Protestant. 
Max Piccolomini, Imperial General - ) 
Marshal Turenne, French General - [ ^^manist. 

Treaty of Westphalia, 1648. 
143 



144 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Period. The Peace of Augsburg concluded in 1555 was only 

or°PaS?ne ^^ outward One. Deep down in their hearts was nour- 

1618. ished the most implacable animosity between the Ro- 
manists and the Lutherans; and at last it burst forth 
in the year 161 8, in the terrible Thirty Years' War which 
laid waste the whole Empire of Germany. 

It began in Bohemia, where the Roman Catholics had 
pulled down a new church built by the Protestants, and 
placed others under lock and key. 

The Lutherans appealed to Ferdinand II. as Emperor 
of Germany and King of Bohemia; but being a Roman- 
ist himself, he returned them only a stern reprimand. It 
was given out that this answer emanated not from the 
king, but from two of his ministers; upon which the 
enraged Lutherans sent messengers to the castle who 
threw the two councillors out of a window eighty feet 
from the ground. Falling, as it happened, upon a heap 
of rubbish, the unfortunate men escaped with their 
lives, though terribly injured; but this occurrence gave 
rise to the war. 

1619. Ferdinand II. was furious, and resolved to punish 
his refractory subjects. The Bohemians declared they 
would no longer tolerate Ferdinand as their king, and 
elected in his place the Protestant, Frederic, Prince Pala- 
tine, son-in-law of James I. of England, and he was 

Frederic V. actually crowned at Prague as Frederic V. His triumph 
did not last long. The Emperor sent an army against 
him under Duke MaximiHan of Bavaria, the leader of 
the " CathoHc League," and a battle was fought on the 
White Mountain near Prague, where Frederic was de- 
feated, and forced to fly to Brandenburg; his enemies 
derisively calKng him the "Winter King," because he 
had only succeeded in reigning one winter. 

The Bohemian general, Count Mansfeld, however, 
still dared to Hft up his sword against the Emperor, and 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 1 45 

on hearing that his army numbered 20,000 men, Fred- 
eric ventured back once more with hopes revived; but 
the great general of the Roman CathoKc League, Baron 
Tilly, was too strong for him, and he once more retired, TiUy. 
this time to Holland. 

Baron Tilly was a man dreaded ahke by friends and 
foes. His name was used by nurses to frighten child xn, 
and by priests to terrify their enemies. The appear- 
ance of his thin, long face, terrible eyes, and large whis- 
kers, his costume of green satin with pointed hat and red 
drooping feather, were alone enough to "send simple 
men to their prayers ". Tilly invaded Bohemia, achieved 
an easy victory over Prague, and in a few months Bo- 
hemia, Moravia, and Silesia submitted to Austria. 
These rapid successes created a profound impression. 
The Emperor Ferdinand II. resolved to crush out of charter of 

, . . T . Liberty 

Bohemia all idea of civil or religious liberty, and with his Destroyed. 
own hands he tore up their beloved " Charter of Liberty" 

From this moment the three countries lost their re- 
ligious reform, their ancient Hberties, their national life, 
and their pohtical importance. The Palatinate suf- 
fered much in the same way. The Upper Palatinate 
and a portion of the Lower Palatinate were handed over 
to Maximihan, the Romanist Duke of Bavaria, to- 
gether with the electoral dignity. 

The "League" triumphed, and nothing seemed to 
oppose the mil of Ferdinand. It is true that for a time 
two bold generals. Christian of Brunswick and Ernest 
of Mansfeld, defied the imperial power. But Tilly 
seemed everywhere victorious. He had dashed into 
WestphaHa, and already began to dispense to the Ro- 
manists the lands which had been granted to the re- 
formed party, when suddenly all the Protestant princes 
rose up boldly and called for help to the King of Den- 
mark, Christian IV. 



CHAPTER XLII. 



Second 
Period. 
Danish, 
1625. 



Wallen- 
stein. 



1626. 



1628. 

Straisund. 



Treaty of 

Lubeck, 

1629. 



Council of 
Ratisbon. 



King Christian undertook the campaign as the 
"leader and champion of the Protestant Union". The 
Emperor Ferdinand was in great difficulty to know how 
to raise sufficient men and money to meet this new 
enemy, when Albert, Count Wallenstein (Waldstein), 
Duke of Friedland, a Bohemian officer of large property, 
came forward and proposed to raise an army at his own 
expense, and in a few weeks 30,000 men were collected 
and marched towards the Elbe. 

At Lutter in Brunswick King Christian was defeated 
by Tilly, and in the following year Wallenstein drove 
him out of Germany and seized the whole of Denmark 
with the exception of one port. 

In order to repay these services, the Emperor deposed 
the Duke of Mecklenburg, and gave all his estates to 
Wallenstein, together with the title of " generahssimo of 
the forces both by land and sea". Not content, how- 
ever, with Mecklenburg, Wallenstein set his heart on 
gaining Pomerania also; and for this purpose he laid 
siege to the strong fortress of Straisund; but the citizens 
made such an heroic defence that he was obhged to 
abandon it. The Emperor found himself constrained 
to treat with King Christian, and the Treaty of Lubeck 
was signed in 1629. 

Meanwhile Wallenstein behaved with such merciless 
rigor to the Germans that he was detested by them; his 
extortions and cruelty roused their greatest wrath; at 
the Council oj Ratishon the Emperor was artfully per- 

146 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 1 47 

suaded by the representations of Pere Joseph, the con- Pere 
fidant of RicheKeu, to dismiss Wallenstein. Contrary 
to all expectations, the Duke of Friedland resigned his 
position without a word of remonstrance, only remark- 
ing, ^'Ferdinand has cut off his right hand". He re- 
retired to Prague, where he Hved on his own estates in 
regal magnificence, and the Duke of Mecklenburg was 
reinstated in his dominions. 

Wallenstein is described by Schiller as a "tall, thin, 
yellow-faced man, with short red hair, gHttering eyes, 
and a dark foreboding brow!" 

From Prague he still sent out despatches all over Eu- 
rope, and when he was known to be deeply engaged in 
important business, even the traffic in the neighboring 
streets was stopped, that he might not be disturbed. 

He was deeply imbued with the superstition of the 
age, and spent much of his time in studying his fortune 
by astrology. 



CHAPTER XLIII. 

THE '-SNOW KING". 

1630-1635. In 1630 an unexpected helper appeared on the Protes- 
Period. tant side in the person of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, 
the "Snow KLing," as he was called from his far-away- 
northern home. 

In appearance he was very striking, immensely tall and 
strong, with fair complexion, blue eyes, in manner dig- 
nified and calm. There is no finer character in all his- 
tory than this heroic and deeply-reHgious man; sternly 
opposed to all vice, he was severe yet gentle, and was 
both loved and feared by all his subjects. He was as 
able a statesman as he was general, and combined rare 
quaUties with the most remarkable talents. 

With 15,000 men he landed on the coast of Pomer- 
ania. His first act was to fall on his knees and pray for 
the blessing of God on his undertaking. His army was 
small in number, but absolutely united; and the piety 
of their chief, the devotion of the soldiers, and the se- 
verity of their disciphne, were in strong contrast to the 
ferocious hordes of Tilly. 

The imperial troops were soon driven out of Pom- 

erania and Mecklenburg ; but Gustavus Adolphus 

Sack of was too late to save the great fortress of Magdeburg, 

163?.^ "^^' which was sacked and burnt, amidst unspeakable 

atrocities, by the inexorable General Tilly. 

Everywhere the people saluted the Swedes as their 
deliverers. But it was not so with the princes. Either 

148 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. I49 

they were afraid of the wrath of Ferdinand II., or their 
pride was humiliated at finding themselves dependent 
on the intervention of strangers; in any case, they re- 
ceived their new alhes very coldly. Only by great pa- 
tience and prudence could Gustavus Adolphus gain 
some of them to his side. 

The Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg absolutely 
refused to enter into an alHance with him, declaring 
they would "rather remain neutral than make common 
cause with the Swede ". 

Gustavus Adolphus, not meeting with the support he 
had had every right to expect, hesitated to advance 
southwards, leaving enemies behind him who might 
cut off his retreat to the Baltic. This hesitation for a 
moment seemed to justify the contemptuous disdain 
with which the Roman CathoHc League heard of the 
arrival of the king. "He is a schoolboy, to whom we 
will give a thrashing," said Wallenstein. "He is a King 
of Snow, who will melt when he comes south," added 
Ferdinand II. 

Meantime all Europe was in horror at the sack of 
Magdeburg. The Emperor ordered Tilly to turn his 
attack upon Saxony (the neutrahty of the Elector had 
irritated him), and the Elector in dismay appealed to the 
King of Sweden for succor. Gustavus Adolphus, put- 
ting aside aU rancor against the Elector for his previous 
coldness, marched on Leipsic in pursuit of Tilly. Never 
had that warrior been beaten. In all the thirty-six bat- 
tles he had fought, he had always come off victorious. 
But it is said that the crimes he had committed at Magde- 
burg haunted him, and unstrung his nerves. At Breit- Breitenfew 
enfeld, not far from Leipsic, for the first time, he was 1631?^^^^' 
overcome by Gustavus Adolphus and fled to Bavaria. 
Here on the Lech, a tributary of the Danube, he was Lech, 
once more confronted with the Swedes, and a second 



ISO 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



1632. 



Lutzen. 



Death of 
Gustavus 
Adolphus. 



Stone of 
the Swede. 



time defeated. Mortally wounded, he died three days 
afterwards, and the Swedes, overrunning Saxon Bavaria, 
entered Munich in triumph. 

In dismay at the brilhant victories of Gustavus Adol- 
phus, the Emperor turned for help again to Wallenstein, 
and entreated him again to raise an army in his defence. 
Wallenstein agreed, but only on condition that he should 
have unhmited powers over the armies of Austria and 
Spain, and that at the close of the war Mecklenburg 
should be restored to him. In his difficulty the Em- 
peror could not refuse. In a wonderfully short space 
of time Wallenstein was in the field, and the war recom- 
menced. On a plain near Lutzen, twelve miles to the 
south of Leipsic, the imperial general waited his foe. 
A fog delayed the battle till eleven o'clock in the morn- 
ing, and then Gustavus Adolphus swung himself into his 
saddle with a prayer on his hps, and to the music of Lu- 
ther's noble hymn of praise. The strife raged furiously. 
Gustavus received a shot in the arm, but still led on his 
troops. A second bullet (possibly aimed by some traitor) 
pierced his spine, and he fell Hfeless from his horse. 
Though Wallenstein' s courage never failed, the imperial 
troops wavered and fled, and the victory remained with 
the Protestants, but there was no rejoicing, for their be- 
loved king was dead. 

His body was found after the battle, much disfigured 
and riddled with balls, under a heap of slain, near a 
large stone, still called the "Stone of the Swede ". 

In wild haste Wallenstein rushed off to Bohemia; 
probably with the idea of gaining the crown. For this 
purpose he entered into secret negotiations with his ene- 
mies, but his intrigues were discovered and reported to 
the Emperor; he was deposed from his high position, 
but confident in his power over his soldiers, he still be- 
lieved himself invincible, and shutting himself up in the 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 151 

town of Eger, he made offers to the princes of the Lu- 
theran cause to join them against the Emperor. They, 
however, refused to accept his overtures. 

One week later, at midnight, a Scotchman named ^^Ugn-^ 
Gordon, a trusted servant of Wallenstein, and an Irish stein, 1634. 
Captain Devereux, with thirty soldiers, burst into his 
bedroom. He had just gone to bed, but springing up, 
was standing by the table in his shirt, when the assas- 
sins rushed in. "Are you the traitor who will deliver 
the imperial troops to the enemy, and tear the crown 
from the head of the Emperor?" cried Devereux. Wal- 
lenstein made no reply, but stretching out his arms, he 
was pierced by a halbert, run right through his body, 
and fell dead. 

There is no actual proof that Ferdinand II. instigated 
the deed, but he richly rewarded the murderers; and 
although Wallenstein' s treachery is undoubted, his mur- 
der will always remain as a blot on the history of Ferdi- 
nand's reign. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 



1^35-^648. -pHE death of Gustavus Adolphus, followed by that of 
Period. Wallenstein, left the burden of Swedish affairs on the 

French- ' 

Swedish, late king's chancellor and friend Oxenstiern, who con- 
tinued the same poKcy as his master, and in 1635 alhed 
himself with the French under RicheHeu, and carried on 
the war. 

The Swedes were commanded by Bernard, Duke of 
S axe- Weimar (who died of the plague in 1639); General 
Torstenson, the former page of Gustavus Adolphus ; and 
Wrangel, the admiral. 

The French, by the Prince de Conde and Marshal 
Turenne. 

The Germans, by Max Piccolomini, Johann von 
Werth, and Mercy. 

The victory of Leipsic gained by Torstenson over 

Piccolomini incited Christian IV. of Denmark to rejoin 

the fray. The coahtion of Sweden, Denmark, and 

France proved so strong that Maximihan of Bavaria 

lost courage; the Emperor Ferdinand IL, also weary 

of the contest, agreed to make peace; and in 1648 the 

Peace of Westphalia brought the long, desolating Thirty 

Years' War to an end. By this Peace of Westphalia — 

France received Alsace (with the exception of Stras- 

burg), and the two important fortresses of Breis- 

sach and PhiHpsburg, as well as Metz, Toul, and 

Verdun. 

Sweden received part of Pomerania, Stralsund, Stettin, 

Wismar, the Island of Rugen, and the bishoprics of 

Bremen and Verden, with five millions of dollars. 

152 



Leipsic, 
1642. 



Treaty of 

Westphalia, 

1648. 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. I53 

Brandenburg received part of Pomerania and several 

bishoprics, including Magdeburg. 
Holland was declared independent. 
Swiss Cantons was also declared independent. 
Bavaria kept the Upper Palatinate and second Electorate, 
whilst the Lower Palatinate and Electorate were 
given back to the Elector Palatine of the Rhine, 
thus increasing the number of electors to eight in- 
stead of seven. 
The Treaty of Westphaha is the first really European 
treaty, and the first attempt to give a " Code of Nations" 
which should form a basis for future diplomatic nego- 
tiations. 

It also marks the close of the ascendency of Spain 
and Austria in Europe, and the rise of French power. 
Germany was left in a miserable condition: worn out 
by war, and decimated by pestilence, her population di- 
minished so that it is estimated that in Berlin and Koln, 
out of 20,000 inhabitants, only 6000 remained aHve; the 
surrounding land, covered vdth heaps of ashes, marked 
the sites of former busy towns, whilst deserts stretched 
for leagues instead of fields of corn. The Protestants, 
however, had reason to rejoice in the Peace of West- 
phaha, for they were allowed complete rehgious freedom, 
and the same right of holding lands and revenues as the 
Roman Catholics. 



LATER EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 
CHAPTER XLV. 

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 
Ferdinand After Wallenstcin's death the Emperor's son Ferdi- 

ni., 1637. , - 1 r 1 1-1 

nand took the command of the troops, and earned on 
the war for thirteen years longer. He followed his 
father to the throne of Germany in 1637, and found him- 
self burdened with heavily comphcated affairs of state, 
besides the anxieties of the Thirty Years' War, in which 
he had not only to contend with the Swedes and their 
party in Germany, but he had also to withstand the en- 
croachments of France. All Germany sighed for peace. 
Treaty of The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 was joyfully received 
1648.^ ^ ^' by all parties. It was signed in two cities, — at Munster 
with the French and at Osnabriick with the Swedes. 

The most important feature of this period is the re- 
markable reign of Louis XIV. in France. His un- 
bounded ambition drew him into the most unwarrant- 
able wars, with the idea of annexing the various coun- 
tries and making himself supreme ruler in Europe. 
One of the arbitrary actions by which he exasperated 
Germany was his taking back (1681) Strasburg without 
regard to the treaty by which it had been secured to the 
Germans. Four years later he fell upon the Palatinate, 
which he ravaged completely, in order, as he said, to 
secure to his own kingdom an eastern boundary which 
should be a desert land, and give himself some reason 

154 



LATER EMPERORS OF GERMANY. I 55 

for his arrogant boast, "L'Etat c'est moi ".^ Heidel- 
berg, Speier, Worms, and many other cities were given 
over to the flames; and the beautiful country, which 
had been enriched during the Middle Ages by valuable 
monuments, was reduced to a mass of ruins ; the remains 
of the castle of Heidelberg are a Hving testimony to the 
spoliation carried on. Ten thousand unfortunate be- 
ings were turned out without house or home. The fury 
and indignation of Germany cannot be described, and 
the war with France now assumed a national character. 
In 1658 Ferdinand died, and was succeeded by his 
son Leopold I. 

^ "I am the State." In spite of his greed for conquest, Louis 
XIV. did much for arts and sciences. Paris became the centre 
of culture, and the French language became common to all cul- 
tivated people throughout Europe. 



CHAPTER XLVI. 



Leopold I., 
1658. 



Turkish 
Invasion, 
1683. 
Siege of 
Vienna. 



John 
Sobieski. 



Eugene of 
Savoy. 



Leopold's reign is specially distinguished by his con- 
stant wars with the Turks. The latter, secretly en- 
couraged by Louis XIV., took advantage of the dissen- 
sions in Hungary to invade the plains of the Danube and 
march on Vienna, when the Emperor, terrified at their 
encroachments, hastily signed a treaty with them for 
twenty years. Peace, however, only lasted five years, 
owing to Leopold's ill-judged conduct towards his sub- 
jects. At the Treaty of WestphaHa the Hungarian Prot- 
estants had obtained liberty of worship ; but Leopold I. 
(educated by the Jesuits) reopened persecutions of the 
people, and withdrew their rights and privileges. 

The Hungarians rose in revolt, and called in the Turks 
to their aid. They very soon arrived under the walls 
of Vienna, commanded by the grand vizier, Kara Mus- 
tafa. The court fled to Lintz, leaving the defence of the 
city to Count von Staremberg; the latter made his name 
famous whilst gallantly holding out the city for sixty 
days ; thus giving time for the imperial and PoHsh troops 
to unite under Charles Duke of Lorraine, and John 
Sobieski, the heroic Kling of Poland, and come to the 
rescue of Vienna. It was in this engagement that the 
young Prince Eugene of Savoy first distinguished him- 
self. His gallant and adventurous Hfe afterwards made 
him one of the heroes of the century. After a terrific 
struggle the Turks fled, and from this time suffered noth- 
ing but reverses, losing place after place; Hungary fell 
back into the power of the Austrians, and the war be- 

156 



LATER EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 1 5/ 

came general. Poland, Venice, and Russia seized the 
opportunity of attacking Turkey on all her frontiers. 
The Peace oj Ryswick and the glorious \dctories of Louis |^^^. °J 
of Baden and Prince Eugene obliged the Sultan to con- 1697. 
elude the Peace oj Carlowitz. Turkey ceded to Austria Peace of 

1 -r» 1 J J. Carlowitz, 

all Lower Hungary except Temeswar and iielgraae; to 1699. 
Venice, the Morea ; and to Russia, Azof. Hungary was 
from this time incorporated into Austria. The Treaty 
of Carlowitz showed the Turkish question in its true 
light, and announced the gradual decHne of the Ottoman 
Empire. 

Meantime the arbitrary acts of Louis XIV. of France 
were exasperating all Europe. Friends and enemies, 
CathoHcs and Protestants, even the Papal See itself, all 
had injuries to avenge, and only waited for a favorable 
opportunity to set about it. The Revocation oj the 
Edict oj Nantes, 1685, put this into their hands. Wil- 1685. 
Ham of Orange, the intrepid defender of the independ- 
ence of Europe, offered to form a coahtion; and Spain, League of 
Holland, Sweden, Austria, Brandenburg, and nearly all i6?6. ^^^' 
the princes of Germany and Italy, formed at Augs- 
burg the defensive League oj Augsburg, which England 
eventually joined. 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

CHAPTER XLVII. 

The eighteenth century marks a transition from mod- 
ern to contemporaneous history; and shows the struggle 
of monarchism against revolutionary principles. 

Three wars of succession are noticeable: those of 
Spain, Poland, and Austria; the Seven Years' War end- 
ing in the rise of Prussia; and the struggle which closed 
with the partition of Poland. The exaggeration of the 
monarchical system had brought a reaction in favor of 
national and popular rights. The need for poHtical and 
social reform had become general; the Order of Jesuits 
was repressed, and finally at the end of the century the 
revolutions in America and France introduced the era 
of great contemporary revolutions. Louis XIV., Peter 
the Great, and Charles XII. are the leading characters 
in the first third of the century; in the latter part the most 
remarkable are Louis XV., Frederic IL, and Maria 
Theresa, Washington, Catherine II., Louis XVI., Buona- 
parte, and the heroes of the French revolution, etc. 

Spain, Sweden, and Turkey suffered a species of 
dismemberment by the loss of provinces and colonies. 
Poland was completely broken up. The old duchy of 
Lorraine was annexed by Louis XV. and that of Cour- 
land by Catherine II. Savoy, Geneva, and the coun- 
tries of the Lower Rhine, with the ecclesiastical Elec- 
torates of the Rhine border, were violently annexed by 
the French Repubhc. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 

158 



I 



THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. I 59 

recovered its ancient prerogatives after having for a 
time passed through the hands of Austria. Austria 
acquired Galicia; and Prussia (Brandenburg) gained 
the greater part of Pomerania and Poland, besides the 
whole of ducal and royal Prussia and Silesia. 

But at the end of the eighteenth century political 
relations were completely upset by the French Revo- 
lution. 



AUSTRIAN HOUSE. 
CHAPTER XLVIII. 

WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. (I.) 

1700. The elder branch of the Hapsburg family died out in 

Spanish Spain in the person of Charles (Carlos) 11./ who, in his 
will, confided the succession to PhiHppe of Anjou, grand- 
son of Louis XIV. The Emperor Leopold I. claimed 
the throne for his second son Charles (afterwards 
Charles VI.). Europe was afraid of either prince, not 
wishing to see Spain so closely alHed to either France or 
Austria. WiUiam III. of England proposed a division 
of the kingdom; but the Spaniards would not hear of 
their country being dismembered, and declared them- 
selves in favor of PhiHppe of Anjou, under the behef 
that France was the only power strong enough to de- 
fend their rights. The "grand monarque" accepted 
the offer for his grandson, and took leave of him with 
the words, "Go, my son; there are no longer any 
P)T:enees!" 

The news at first produced a feehng of stupefaction 
throughout Europe. Wearied by the last war, they 
were indisposed to commence another. But the en- 
croachments of Louis XIV. were not to be tolerated. 

* The Hapsburg Charles (Carlos) II. of Spain had two sisters; 
one (Maria Theresa of Spain) married Louis XIV. of France, and 
the other married Leopold I., Emperor of Germany, thus giving 
both these countries a certain claim to the throne of Spain when 
Carlos II. died childless. 

160 



AUSTRIAN HOUSE. l6l 

As soon as he had taken possession of the Spanish 
provinces in the name of his grandson, he turned out the 
Dutch garrisons placed in the Netherlands for the pro- 
tection of the United Provinces; and, moreover, on the 
death of James II. of England, he proposed to place his 
own son on the throne, as James III., in prejudice to the 
established King WiUiam III. There was an outburst 
of anger from Great Britain at the idea of the '' insolent 
King of France daring to impose a sovereign upon 
them ". 

Europe divided into two camps: on one side, Austria 
supported by England, Holland, most of the princes of 
the German Empire, Portugal, Savoy and Prussia (now 
growing into one of the formidable powers of Europe); 
on the other side, France was only befriended by the 
Electors of Bavaria and Cologne. 

In Spain itself the Aragonese accepted PhiHppe V. 
with enthusiasm, whilst the CastiHans preferred the 
Archduke Charles of Austria; but on the whole the 
general feeUng was in favor of the French prince. 

War was declared in 1701. 1701. 

Louis XIV. was less fortunate than his grandson. 
The allies achieved brilHant victories at Hochstadt in 
Bavaria, Blenheim (1704), and RamilHes in the Nether- 
lands (1706), Turin, Gudenarde on the Scheldt (1708), 
Malplaquet (1709), and elsewhere both by sea and land. 
Marlborough and Eugene ^ on the one side were more 
than a match for the finest generalship of their enemies 
on the other; but, in spite of all their successes, Spain 
held its own, and the French prince PhiHppe V. was 
finally established on the throne. 

In the year 1705 the Emperor Leopold I. died, and 
his elder son, Joseph I., succeeded to the imperial throne. 

^ Prince of Savoy-Carignan, general in the service of Emp* 
Leopold. 



l62 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Joseph I., 
1705. 



Charles VI. 

Treaty of 

Utrecht, 

1713. 

Treaty of 

Rastadt, 

1714- 



Joseph I. maintained the war with France till 1707; 
he reigned eight years, and was followed by his brother 
the Archduke Charles. 

The accession of Charles VI. changed the position of 
affairs, and led to the Treaty of Utrecht in 17 13 and that 
of Rastadt in 17 14, when PhiHppe V. kept Spain and its 
colonies; Austria obtained the Spanish Netherlands, 
the Kingdom of Naples, Milan and Sardinia; England 
received Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain, Hudson's 
Bay and Nova Scotia from France; to Holland was 
granted the liberty of placing garrisons in most of the 
fortresses of the Austrian Netherlands. The Duke of 
Savoy ^ obtained Sicily with the title of king; the kingly 
title was granted to Frederic L, who thus became the 
■first King of Prussia. Louis XIV. only survived the 
Treaty of Utrecht a very short time; he died in 1715, leav 
ing his throne to his great-grandson Louis XV., a child 
of only five years old. 



^ Victor, Duke of Savoy, was obliged to give up the Kingdom 
of Sicily, exchanging it with the Emperor Charles VI. for that 
of Sardinia in 1720. 



CHAPTER XLIX. 

WAR OF THE POLISH SUCCESSION. (II.) 
Poland had begun to decline since the death of Sigis- War of 

Polish 

mund the Great, the last of the Jagellon dynasty, when Succes- 
the crown of Poland was offered to foreign princes, and ^^°^' 
in 1587 was taken by the grandson of Gustavus Vasa, 
King of Sweden. When the gallant John Sobieski, the 
last independent king, died in 1697, Poland quickly sank 
down, and fell a prey to the ambition of surrounding 
nations. 

The war of the PoKsh succession in 1733 may not seem 1733. 
to be of much importance in itself, but it affected some 
of the articles of the Treaty of Utrecht. 

Louis XV. of France on coming of age married Marie 
Leczinski, daughter of the ex-King of Poland, Stanislas 
Leczinski, who had been deposed 1709. For some time 
the aged French minister Fleury and the Enghsh Wal- 
pole succeeded in maintaining peace in Europe; but 
the death of the reigning king, Augustus 11. of Poland, 
rekindled a war. Poland divided into two parties: one 
party, supported by France, re-elected Stanislas Leczin- 
ski; whilst the other party, helped by Russia and Aus- 
tria, declared for Augustus HI., son of the preceding 
king. 

The Russians entered Poland, and turned out Stanislas, 
who fled to Danzig . Cardinal Fleury could not see the 
father-in-law of his king besieged in his own town with- 
out offering help; but he sent only the barest necessa- 

163 



164 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

ries in the way of supplies; and all Stanislas could do 
was to escape from Danzig, and take refuge in France. 
Fleury, in revenge for this reverse, joined with Spain and 
Sardinia in attacking Austria. The French dashed into 
Lorraine.^ At the same time the Sardinians attacked 
Milan; ^ Don Carlos, the young Duke of Parma, in- 
vaded Naples, and annexed it, together with the King- 
dom of Sicily, thus once more bringing the Kingdom of 
the Two SiciHes under Spanish dominion; and Charles 
VI., finding himself vanquished on all points, signed the 
Vienna °^ Treaty of Vienna. By this treaty Stanislas received 
1738. Lorraine in place of Poland (but on his death in 1766 

Lorraine was once more united to France); Tuscany 
was given to Duke Francis, as compensation for the 
loss of Lorraine. Don Carlos kept the conquered king- 
doms of Naples and Sicily, but gave up the Duchy of 
Parma in exchange to the Emperor. The King of Sar- 
dinia obtained some estates near Milan. Augustus III. 
remained in possession of Poland. 

^ Duke Francis of Lorraine had married Maria Theresa, 
daughter of the Emperor Charles VI. 

^ Don Carlos (afterwards Carlos III. of Spain) was the son of 
Philip V. of Spain. 



CHAPTER L. 

WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. (III.) 

As the Emperor Charles VI. had no sons, and he fore- Pragmatic 
saw that the House of Hapsburg in Germany would charies vi. 
become extinct upon his death, he earnestly desired that 
his favorite daughter, Maria Theresa, Archduchess of 
Austria, might be acknowledged Empress, and succeed 
to the throne, in preference to the children of his 
brother Joseph. He therefore issued a Pragmatic 1723. 
Sanction to this effect, and appealed to all the European 
powers to agree to it. To obtain the consent of the 
King of Poland, he supported the claim of Augustus III. 
against Stanislas Leczinski; and for the same purpose 
he allowed many concessions to France and Spain 
through the Treaty of Vienna. Prince Eugene at last 
told the Emperor plainly that he had "much better 
seek for help by supporting a strong army of his own, 
than by making vague diplomatic promises to other 
countries ". 
The death of Charles VI. in 1740 opened a new Euro- Maria 

Theresa 

pean question. According to the Pragmatic Sanction, 1740. '^ 
Maria Theresa was proclaimed Empress/ but a for- 
midable league was drawn together to oppose her 
election. 

The Electors of Bavaria and Saxony^ each claimed 
the succession to the Empire. 

^ And Queen of Hungary and Bohemia. 
2 Augustus III. of Poland. 
165 



1 66 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Allies 
against 
Maria 
Theresa. 



Allies of 

Maria 

Theresa. 



First 

Period, 

1740-42. 

Second 

Period, 

1743-44. 

Third 
Period, 

1744-45- 



Fourth 
Period, 
1746-48. 



Molwitz, 
1741- 



France declared in favor of the Elector of Bavaria. 

Prussia, in its new character as a kingdom under 
Frederic II., wanted to get hold of Silesia. 

Philip V. of Spain, or rather his ambitious wife, 
Elizabeth of Parma, wanted the German crown for one 
of her own sons. 

Charles Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, desired to 
secure Milan and the surrounding estates. 

England only, under George II., who was jealous of 
the rising power of Prussia and Bavaria, and feared 
anything which would endanger his own Hanover 
electorate, declared for Austria and Maria Theresa. 

The war of the Austrian succession presents many 
turns of fortune. The poHtical "wheels within wheels" 
became more and more involved as the time went on. 

At the outset, Austria was fighting alone with Hun- 
gary against a strong league, and was beaten. 

The alliance of England and the neutrality of Prussia 
encouraged Austria, and gave her partial success. 

The rejection of neutrahty by Frederic II., and the 
momentary defection of England, brought fresh re- 
verses upon Austria. 

At last a peace with Prussia and the renewed sup- 
port of England estabHshed equiUbrium for a second 
time. From this it will be seen that England and 
Prussia exercised a decisive influence on the march of 
events. 

Frederic II. of Prussia was the first to enter on a cam- 
paign. He took possession of Silesia, and remained 
master of the province after having beaten the Austrians 
at Molwitz. Shortly afterwards a Franco-Bavarian 
army entered the archduchy, descended the valley of the 
Danube, and was soon within a few leagues of Vienna. 
The Saxons in their turn entered Bohemia, whilst the 
Spaniards and Sardinians advanced on Milan. The 



AUSTRIAN HOUSE. 1 6/ 

old Hapsburg monarchy seemed to be on the eve of 
complete destruction. 

The alHes, however, had entered into the league 
against Austria from such various motives that the 
coalition was bound to be speedily dissolved. Neither 
the Elector of Saxony nor the King of Prussia cared to 
work for the aggrandizement of Bavaria. Frederic II. 
himself was even ready to ally himself with Maria 
Theresa, if she would only give up Silesia. As for the 
King of Sardinia, his mind was entirely engrossed with 
the dread of seeing the Bourbons — who were already 
masters of Naples — estabhshed in Upper Italy; for his 
own "young kingdom" would then have been infallibly 
crushed between the Bourbons of France and the Bour- 
bons of Spain. 

Three circumstances saved Austria: the mistakes of 
her enemies; the heroic devotion of the Hungarians; 
and the intervention of England. 

The Elector of Bavaria, who was a man as vain as 
he was incapable, committed blunder after blunder. 
Instead of marching on Vienna he turned to Prague, in 
order to be crowned King of Bohemia; and then went 
to Frankfort, where he was crowned Emperor under the charies 
name of Charles VII. •» i 4 • 

Meantime Maria Theresa never lost her courage; 
even from a child she had shown herself gifted not only 
with rare talents, but with powers of command and or- 
ganization such as would have done credit to any man's 
brain. In her nineteenth year she had married Franz ' 
Steffan of Lorraine, the Duke of Tuscany, and she was 
hardly twenty-four when she succeeded her father as 
Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and laid claim to the 
title of Empress under the authority of the Pragmatic 
Sanction. But now enemies assailed her on all sides; 
and well might Prince Eugene say "that the best de- 



1 68 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

fence for the Pragmatic Sanction would be richly filled 
coffers and a well-disciplined army ". 

Whilst the new Emperor was wasting his time with 
coronation ceremonials, Maria Theresa called a "Reichs- 
tag" (Hungarian Diet) at Presburg, presented herself 
before her subjects, dressed in mourning, with the 
crown of St. Steffan on her head and the sword of 
Hungary at her side; holding her baby in her arms she 
addressed the assembly in a pathetic speech in Latin,^ 
declaring that her only hope lay in the known courage 
of her faithful Hungarian subjects. The Magyar 
chiefs — forgetting all the tyrannies of their Hapsburg 
masters — drew their swords and shouted enthusiastic- 
ally, "Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa" 
(We will die for our King Maria Theresa) . 

The country rose en masse ; thousands of Hungarians, 
Croats, and Pandours (Hungarian infantry) poured 
into Bohemia and Bavaria; the Franco-Bavarian ar- 
mies were scattered; and whilst the conceited Charles 
VII. was parading at Frankfort, his capital Munich fell 
into the hands of the Austrians and Hungarians, whose 
hordes of soldiery ravaged the country on all sides. 
The French troops, engaged to defend Bavaria, were 
left by the absurd parsimony of Fleury without money 
or supplies, and would certainly have fallen victims to 
the Austrians, had it not been for the brilliant conduct 
of the young Maurice, Duke of Saxony, illegitimate son 
of Augustus II., who had for many years been attached 
to the service of France. 

^ Languages of the Austro -Hungarian Empire: 

German in Upper and Lower Austria, Tyrol, etc. 

Magyar, a kind of Finnish, spoken by the Magyars of Hungary. 

Czech, a kind of Sclavonic, in Bohemia. 

Polish, Ruthenian, Romanic, and many others. 
Till 184Q Latin was the language of the Hungarian [law-courts 
and ParUament. 



AUSTRIAN HOUSE. 1 69 

In England, Walpole had been superseded by the 
young and gifted minister WiUiam Pitt, and he gave it 
as his opinion that the country ought to send abundant 
assistance, both in money and troops, and openly take 
the part of Maria Theresa. Through his mediation. Treaty of 

Breslau, 

the young queen at last consented to come to terms 1742. 
with Prussia, Saxony, and Sardinia; but it was not 
without heartburning that she agreed to cede Silesia to 
Frederic II. at the Treaty of Breslau, 1742. 

Two years had hardly elapsed, however, when Fred- 1744- 
eric II., fearing that Maria Theresa would succeed in 
retaking his beloved Silesia, joined the French and 
Bavarian alliance against her, invaded Bohemia, and 
captured Prague after a ten days' siege. On the other 
hand, England — being threatened with an invasion in 
Scotland by Charles Edward, the Young Pretender — 
was obliged to recall her troops from the continent; and 
Austria, abandoned to herself, and confronted once 
more with her formidable Prussian adversary, was de- 
feated on all sides. Louis XV. also invaded the Aus- 
trian Netherlands, and gained the victory of Fontenoy Fontenoy. 
(near Tournay), whilst Frederic of Prussia three times 
defeated the Austrian forces. 

In dismay the Austrian troops were recalled, Ba- 
varia was evacuated, and Charles VII. re-entered his 
capital Munich. 

Scarcely, however, had he established himself there Maximilian 
when he died, and his son Maximilian Joseph hastened 1745. 
to conclude a peace with Maria Theresa, promising to 
give his vote for her husband Franz Steffan of Lorraine 
(whom she desired to have elected Emperor), on con- 
dition that the cession of Silesia was granted to him. 
This was done at the Treaty of Dresden, and the Duke Treaty of , 

r -r ' 1 T-< -ri • T Dresdeii, 

01 Lorrame was crowned Emperor as rrancis I. 1745. 

Francis I. 



CHAPTER LI. 



MARIA THERESA AND FRANCIS I. 



Maria 
Theresa 
and 
Francis I. 



Europe had need of repose, and the various States 
set to work to recover from their fatigue. France and 
England, Frederic 11. and Maria Theresa, turned their 
attention to industries and national works, to raise their 
kingdoms once more to social prosperity. Unfortu- 
nately, there were too many causes of discord for a 
long - continued peace. The various maritime powers 
were dismayed at the increasing power of the English 
fleet; the surrounding nations were jealous of the rapid 
development of Prussia; and Frederic II. the Great, 
far from seeking to gain their sympathies, amused him- 
self by wounding the feehngs of the kings and queens 
by pungent epigrams. It was only too easy to find good 
reasons for the Seven Years' War which followed: 

I. The old maritime rivalry between France and 

England. 

II. The new antagonism between Austria and 

Prussia. 



THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 



1756-63. " Europe," says Voltaire in his " Siecle de Louis XV.," 
"had never seen brighter days than those of the seven 
years 1748-17 5 5, when commerce flourished from Pe- 
tersburg to Cadiz, the fine arts were everywhere encour- 
aged, a mutual sympathy seemed to pervade all nations; 

170 



AUSTRIAN HOUSE. I/I 

Europe appeared to be one large family, re-united after 
many quarrels." 

Maria Theresa of Austria, however, could never for- 
give Frederic II. of Prussia for gaining Silesia, and 
it is said that she never saw a Silesian without bursting 
into tears. In the hope of recovering the province, she 
entered into a treaty with the Swedish King Adolphus 
Frederic (of Holstein Gottorp, a descendant of Vasa), 
with the Russian Empress EHzabeth, and the Polish 
King Augustus III. (Elector of Saxony), for the par- 
tition between them of the Prussian kingdom. Knowing 
by experience that she could have no hope of success 
against Frederic IL, if she should have to guard against 
France at the same time, and so to divide her army by 
keeping one portion engaged on the Rhine, she therefore 
employed her clever diplomatist, Prince Kaunitz, in 
winning favor for her at Versailles. 

It would have seemed impossible for France to set 
aside all her traditional poHtics, and enter into any inti- 
mate alliance with her old foe. But the unworthy mon- 
arch of France, Louis XV., was entirely in the hands of 
his favorites; and Madame de Pompadour reigned 
supreme at court. She had been deeply hurt at some 
witty but cutting sarcasms levelled at her by the King 
of Prussia, and she received with dehght the advances 
of Maria Theresa. She was still further charmed when 
the latter wrote to her in the most flattering manner, 
calling her "my good friend and cousin". This was Treaty of 
sufficient to secure a so-called "treaty of defence" be- 1756?^ ^^' 
tween France and Austria, having for its ultimate end 
the annihilation of Prussia. 

Frederic II. and George IL, finding themselves neg- 
lected by their former alHes, drew together: England 
offered to furnish subsidies to Prussia, if Frederic would 
defend Hanoverian interests in return. 



172 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



1756. 



Pirna. 



Losowitz. 



The opening of the Seven Years' War shows an as- 
tonishing position of affairs: 

Sweden going hand in hand with Russia; 
■ Poland with Austria, united in the one desire to dis- 
member Prussia; but even this was less wonderful than 
the Franco-Austrian coalition. 

The Northern powers hoped to gain some territorial 
advantage out of the business; but the treaty con- 
cluded by France was doubly impolitic, as it turned 
away the maritime power of France from its resistance to 
England, absorbing it in a struggle wdth Prussia — her 
natural ally — to the advantage of Austria, her old enemy. 

Thus France, Austria, Russia, Poland, and Sweden 
were united in an act of spoliation, desiring to wipe out 
from the map of Europe a country hitherto only hold- 
ing a secondary rank amongst the sovereignties. 

England and Prussia alone combined to defend na- 
tional interests and the balance of power, against petty 
boudoir jealousies and dynastic ambitions. 

On the one side Ehzabeth of Russia and Madame de 
Pompadour upholding the hereditary pretensions of the 
Hapsburgs; on the other, Frederic II. and William 
Pitt — a great monarch and a great statesman — very 
different in personality, but each great enough to admire 
the other, and both thoroughly in earnest in working for 
the grandeur and glory of their respective nations. 

Frederic 11. of Prussia, seeing warhke preparations 
made on all sides, determined to be beforehand in the 
field. He placed himself at the head of 60,000 men, 
attacked Dresden,^ and forced the army of the Elector 
of Saxony to retreat to Pirna. Leaving half his troops 
before Pirna, Frederic turned to Bohemia, marched 
against the Austrians, gained the battle of Losowitz, 

^ In Dresden Frederic found the papers showing the treacher- 
ous designs of his enemies against Prussia. 



AUSTRIAN HOUSE. 1 73 

then back again to Pirna, forcing the Saxons to capitulate. 
He obhged Augustus III. (Elector of Saxony) to retire 
to his Kingdom of Poland, took possession of his elec- 
torate, and forced 15,000 men to surrender and enter his 
own regiments. 

This unforeseen aggression excited a universal clamor. 
France declared the invasion of Saxony was a violation 
of the Treaty of Westphaha, and sent three armies, one 
under the command of RicheHeu, to the rescue. 

At first, the French had some success, and Prussia 1757. 

was menaced at all points. Frederic hurried a second 

time into Bohemia, gained a desperate victory at 

Prague, but in his turn suffered a complete defeat at 

Kolin. It was in commemoration of the Austrian vie- Koiin, 

1757. 

tory at KoHn that Maria Theresa instituted the mihtary 
" Order of Maria Theresa". 

Meantime, the Russians and the Swedes were ad- Convention 

' ^ of Kloster- 

vancing victoriously; the French beat the Enghsh and Seven, 
Hanoverians, and obhged them to sign a treaty, called 
the Kloster-Seven Convention. 

The imperial armies invaded Silesia, and penetrated 
into Berlin; and a French army, under the Marechal 
de Soubise, advanced through Thuringia, threatening 
Frederic on the west. Frederic seemed lost, judging 
from his desperate position, and he even thought of com- 
mitting suicide. It is said that he was only restrained 
from this by the fear that Voltaire would hold up his 
name to public contempt after his death. 

He therefore once more marched against the French. Rosbach, 

^ 1757. 

At Rosbach, on the 5th of November, 1757, the Prus- 
sians had stationed their camp, and the soldiers were 
supposed to be reposing in their tents, when all at once, 
at a given signal, the tents sank to the ground, and 
there stood the whole Prussian army, in full battle array. 

There was a complete panic; the German contin- 



174 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

gents threw down their arms at the first cannon shot, 
and the French soldiers followed their example; only 
two brave Swiss regiments, "hke impenetrable for- 
tresses of red brick," as Frederic himself called them, 
covered their retreat, and prevented its being turned 
into a complete rout. 
Leuthen. Another briUiant victory was won by Frederic at 
Leuthen (considered by Napoleon as one of the chefs 
d'osuvre of mihtary art); and Frederic made a glorious 
end to the campaign, by which he had thought he should 
perish miserably. 

It was the happiest moment of his hfe. Fortune 
seemed to favor him once more. Wilham Pitt refused 
to ratify the Convention of Kloster-Seven; and his 
German allies (Hanover, Brunswick, and Hesse) 
again took the field. 

Equihbrium once again estabhshed, the struggle 
became a more equal one. For three years the war 
was pursued with varied success on either side; but un- 
questionably Prussia could not long have resisted so 
many powerful enemies. The greater part of Fred- 
eric's estates were occupied by the armies of his ene- 
mies, and even his capital was taken and pillaged by the 
Austro-Russians. Moreover, George II. died; and his 
successor George III., desiring peace, ceased to give 
any active support to the Prussians. The situation was 
hopelessly critical; the two Empresses, Maria Theresa 
and Ehzabeth, felt assured of a triumphant ending to 
the war. Frederic was at Breslau with the remains of 
his army; saddened and dispirited, he refused all con- 
solation, though he was no less resolute to end his days 
"in glory in some way or another," whilst defending 
Silesia, the one object of his ambition. 

No less dispirited were his troops, who even spoke of 
laying down their arms, should they be called out to 



AUSTRIAN HOUSE. 1/5 

battle again. Europe was in daily expectation of see- 
ing Frederic the Great succumb to his misfortunes, 
when the death of the Empress EHzabeth of Russia put 
an end to all their surmises. Her successor Peter III., 
an ardent admirer of Frederic the Great, not only 
abandoned the Austrian alHance, but sent troops to the 
aid of Prussia. 

The news came as a thunderclap upon Austria. 
Frederic, with renewed energy, took the field, and 
chased the Austrians out of Silesia. The new Czar, it 
is true, was shortly after dethroned; and his wife, 
Catherine II., his successor, retired from the war. 

But Prussia was none the less saved. Maria Theresa Peace of 
and her allies were at the end of their resources; Feb.!'i763. 
France and Spain had seen the ruin of their fleets. 
"Peace!" became the universal cry. It was pro- 
claimed in the Treaty oj Paris, between the maritime 
powers, England, France, and Spain; and at Huberts- Peace of 
burg, not far from Leipsic, between Austria and Prussia; burg^, 15th 
when Frederic kept Silesia, on giving his promise to ® •' ^'^ ^* 
vote for the election of Joseph, eldest son of Maria 
Theresa, as " King of the Romans ". 

The Elector of Saxony (and King of Poland) re- 
ceived back his estates; Sweden evacuated the Prussian 
share of Pomerania; and France gave up Minorca and 
Canada to the English. 

The Seven Years' War had cost Europe a milHon 
men, and materially changed, not the territories, but the 
poHtical influence of several nations. France, deprived 
of her fleet by the victories of Hawke, Anson, Boscawen, 
and Pocock, and of her colonies by the Peace of Hu- 
bertsburg, ceased to be regarded as the first military 
power on the continent. Austria was considerably 
weakened, whilst Prussia emerged covered with glory, 
and became one of the first-class European powers. 



176 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

England, by the destruction of her enemies' fleets, and 
by the increase of her colonies, obtained important 
annexations, laid the foundation of the vast Indian 
Empire, became possessor of half North America, and 
remained supreme on the ocean. 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 
CHAPTER LIE 



JOSEPH II. (THE REFORMER), LEOPOLD II., 
AND FRANCIS II. 

When the Emperor Francis I. (of Lorraine) died, his Maria 

son, Joseph IE, was declared Emperor; but until the and Joseph 

time of her death, his energetic mother, Maria Theresa, 

really acted as regent; and history has seldom shown 

us a finer or more spirited ruler than she proved herself 

to be throughout her long stormy reign. As a mother, 

she had been careful in the education of her children; 

and Joseph especially had from a boy steadily studied 

the history and welfare of his future people. At the age Joseph ii. 

• the Re— 

of thirty-nme, when he was left sole ruler by his mother's former, 
decease (1780), he possessed a thorough knowledge of ^ °' 
the position and daily Hves of the various classes of his 
subjects. He had travelled in Italy, France, and 
Spain, and even gone as far as Russia. Filled with a 
great desire to improve his country, he carried out 
many civil and religious changes. One of the principal 
of these was the "Edict of Toleration," giving to the 
Protestants and Jews equal rights with the Roman 
Catholics. He did away altogether with vassalage, and 
thus finished his mother's work in putting a final end to 
the feudal system. Unfortunately, the Emperor's good 

177 



178 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Disputed 
Succession 
to Palati- 
nate of the 
Rhine. 

Duchy of 
Bavaria. 



Peace of 
Teschen, 
1779. 



works were not allowed to be carried on without inter- 
ruption. The Hungarians and the inhabitants of the 
Austrian Netherlands revolted and embittered the last 
years of his Kfe, and the Turks made continual inroads 
on the borderlands. 

One of the gravest questions of his reign was the par- 
tition of Poland. After the "first partition" fifteen 
years of peace followed for Eastern Europe, but the 
ambition of the Emperor, who, to carry out his ideas of 
conquest, was ready to ally himself with any one Hkely 
to assist him, brought on a general war. The house of 
Wittelsbach (Bavaria) was divided into two branches; 
the elder or Palatinate branch had Heidelberg for its 
capital, and is known as the "Palatinate of the Rhine"; 
the younger, or Ducal branch, had the Duchy of Ba- 
varia, with Munich for its capital, and at this time owned 
a second electorate. The younger or Bavarian branch 
became extinct on the death of the Emperor MaximiHan 
Joseph, son of Charles VH.; and the Elector Palatine, 
Charles Theodore (chief of the elder branch), inherited 
the succession, and thus re-united the two sides of the 
Palatine House, and combined the two electorates. 
Charles Theodore had no children; and Joseph 11. 
made an agreement with him, by which Bavaria and the 
Upper Palatinate should, on his death, be united with 
Austria. The German States, Prussia above all, and 
all the old adversaries of the Hapsburgs, refused, at any 
price, to consent to an act which would put central 
Germany at the mercy of Austria. Frederic II. of 
Prussia even invaded the Austrian dominion of Bo- 
hemia, and a new War of Succession seemed on the 
point of bursting out. But, through the mediation of 
France and Russia, the Peace of Teschen was arranged, 
and a universal war was averted. The succession of 
Charles Theodore was secured to his next heir, the Duke 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 1/9 

of Deux Fonts (or Bipont, Zweibriicken) .^ In this dip- 
lomatic struggle, Austria was threatening the peace of 
Europe, whilst Frederic 11. was defending the Emperor. 
Catherine 11. had only acted with a view of extending 
her influence in Germany, and she did not hesitate to 
abandon her old ally, Frederic II., and make overtures 
to the Emperor Joseph, when she thought him more dis- 
posed to concur in her plans of conquest. The pohtical 
questions of the day were full of annoyance and weari- 
ness to Joseph. His whole passion was for reform. 
This carried him into excesses, which roused the indig- 
nation of his subjects ; for, unfortunately, he disregarded 
the inequahty of culture, and the various prejudices of 
the mixed population under his dominion; and the 
changes wrought so suddenly appeared to the mass of 
his ignorant subjects merely so much tyranny. He 
accorded complete Hberty to all the people, whether of 
the Protestant faith or the Greek Church; destroyed 
2024 monasteries, only leaving 700; the number of 
monks was reduced from 37,000 to 17,000; the revenues 
arising from these confiscations w^ere expended in the 
erection of new parishes and useful institutions, such as 
schools, hospitals, poor-houses, and refuges for waifs 
and strays. The Bible was translated into the national 
tongue. 

As a civil reformer, his great aim was to assure to all 
his subjects personal liberty, by the suppression of serf- 
dom and taxes, and the equahty of all ranks and classes 
in the eyes of the law. These measures, however ex- 
cellent in themselves, introduced without regard for 

^ The Duchy of Zweibnicken (Bipont) was in possession of 
Charles Gustavus, Count Palatine of the Rhine, nephew of Gus- 
tavus Adolphus. He afterwards became Charles X. of Sweden, 
by the resignation of his cousin, Queen Christina, daughter of 
Gustavus Adolphus. 



i8o 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Leopold II. 
1790. 



Francis 
1792. 

1793. 



II. 



Treaty of 
Luneville, 
laoi. 



ancient laws and rights, caused the greatest trouble and 
perplexity to the people; and the unfortunate Emperor 
was so chagrined by the overthrow of his projects, and 
the misunderstanding of his subjects that his death was 
accelerated by grief; and the epitaph he composed for 
himself gives the keynote to the sadness of his later years : 
"Here Hes Joseph II., unfortunate in all his under- 
takings". 

Joseph II. was succeeded by his brother, Leopold II. 
The latter comprehended that the acquisition of some 
provinces of the Ottoman Empire would not compen- 
sate to Austria for the fatal results of the establishment 
of the Russians on the Danube, and he therefore made 
peace with the Sultan, and gave him back his conquests 
(see Danubian Principahties) . He only hved two years, 
however, and was followed by his son Francis II. in 1792. 

The Rhenish Provinces revolted against Francis II. 
in 1793; and in the ruinous wars that followed between 
Germany and France, the Emperor lost the Netherlands, 
all his territories west of the Rhine, and his states in 
Italy. Francis II. joined in the second partition of 
Poland in 1795. But the end of the eighteenth century 
witnessed the complete overthrow of all European poH- 
tics by the French revolution. At the Treaty of Lune- 
ville, Germany was obHged to make large cessions of ter- 
ritory to France (1801); and Francis IL, hopeless of 
holding the reins of government longer over his large 
discordant dominions, resigned the crown of Germany, 
and from henceforth is known as Francis I., Emperor of 
Austria, Hungary and Bohemia (Austro-Hungarian 
Empire), 1806. 



CHAPTER LIII. 

THE PARTITION OF POLAND. 

Poland had remained far behind the other countries 
in civiHzation, and in the eighteenth century was no 
further advanced than in the middle ages. Amongst 
the other Western nations, social development had 
emancipated and raised the lower orders, whilst the 
mass of the population in country places in Poland re- 
mained plunged in a serfdom as hard as it was lowering. 
The middle class had no power whatever; the nobles 
alone enjoyed any political rights, and Poland was prac- 
tically an aristocratic repubhc, with a nominal chief. 
The kingdom had fast declined since the days of the 
noble John Sobieski, the last independent king, who 
even himself had failed to bring his turbulent people to 
order. The dissolution was only further hurried on in 
the reigns of the two princes of the House of Saxony, 
Augustus n. and Augustus III., who introduced into 
Warsaw (Varsovie) the luxury and self-indulgence of 
the great capitals of Europe. 

The country was given up to the intrigues of Russia. 
During the Seven Years' War (i 756-1 763), the troops 
of the Czarina Elizabeth not only traversed the land at 
will, but estabhshed cantonments, as if Poland were 
already a Russian province. 

On the death of Augustus IH., 1764, the electors 1764. 
divided into two parties, one caUing themselves the 
"patriotic party," and desiring to hold to the old con- 
stitution; the other trusting to the protection of Russia, 
and proclaiming Stanislas Poniatowski, an unworthy 
favorite of Catherine II., as their king. 

181 



1 82 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

For a time the attention of Russia was diverted 
from Polish affairs by a fresh outbreak against the 
Turks. Some unfortunate Poles had taken refuge on 
Ottoman land; the Russians pursued them, burnt a 
village, and massacred the Turks. 

At the news of this violation of territory, the people 
of Constantinople rose, and demanded that the Sultan 
should declare war against Russia. The struggle was a 
terrible one; on both sides, acts of atrocious barbarity 
were committed: the Russians took Moldavia and Wal- 
lachia; and the Turks, weakened by a Greek insurrec- 
tion in the Morea, were also compelled to give up the 
Crimea to the Czarina. 

Parution Then Catherine II. turned her attention to Poland. 

Feb., 1772. The first arrangment for the partition of the unhappy 
country was made in a secret convention between Russia 
and Prussia, in the spring of 1772; but later in the same 
year the question came to an open issue. 

Partk^on Prussia and Austria, fearing the increase of Russian 

Aug., 1772. domination, and in dismay at seeing Wallachia and 
Moldavia Muscovite provinces, decided on the definite 
dismemberment of Poland. It was at this time that 
Maria Theresa, acting as co-regent of Austria, with her 
son, Joseph 11. , put aside her detestation of the con- 
queror of Silesia, and made overtures to Frederic II. of 
Prussia. A meeting took place between the two sov- 
ereigns. This unforeseen alliance disconcerted Russia: 
Catherine was afraid that Austria would take up the 
cause of Turkey and prepared to make concessions. 

1773. As a sufficient inducement to the Empress to abandon 

Moldavia and Wallachia, the other powers agreed to 
conclude a treaty of partition, by which each was to take 
possession of a certain portion of Poland. It is said, 
however, that it was not without compunction that 
Maria Theresa closed with her share of the prey; and 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 1 83 

that she suffered pangs of conscience on account of the 
injustice done to the unfortunate country. 

Meantime, the war between Russia and Turkey con- m4^ ^^ 
tinned, and was only concluded in 1774 by the Treaty Kainardji. 
of Kainardji in Bulgaria, by which the independence of 
the Crimea was estabHshed, and certain rights granted 
to Russia over all countries in which the Greek Church 
was estabHshed. 

The relations between Russia and Poland were grow- 1793. 
ing terribly strained. In 1793, the Poles thought that 
the moment had come to recover their independence. 
The nobles had at last comprehended the necessity of a 
reform. They had suppressed old abuses, changed the 
constitution, and all Europe hailed with approbation 
what appeared to be the commencement of a new era for 
Poland. Frederic WilKam 11.^ of Prussia promised 
his support to the reforming party, but a certain num- 
ber of the aristocratic party declared that they would 
defend the old state of things, and preserve — so they 
said — the ancient liberty of the people. They even in- 
voked succor from Russia; and the Czarina, Catherine 
11. , sent troops to crush the partisans of the new con- 
stitution. 

The reforming party at last succumbed. The old 1793. 
order of things was re-estabhshed, and Catherine was 
proclaimed by the opposition as " the restorer of Hberty 
to Poland". They soon, however, saw that they had 
simply been made the tools of Russian ambition. 

In a very short time Catherine II. and Frederic Wil- Second 

•' ^ ^ Partition, 

Ham II. agreed to make a second partition of the coun- 1793.^ 
try, declaring that Poland was infected by a revolution- 
ary spirit, and must be suppressed "for the sake of the 
neighboring states ". Again the Diet made a strong re- 
sistance. All opposition was useless. The new parti- 
^ The successor of Frederic II. 



1 84 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

tion was executed by violence, and only a third of its an- 
cient territory was left to Poland. 

1794. In 1794 one last expiring effort was made by the 
Poles, under the heroic Kosciusko, who had already 
valiantly fought for the cause of Mberty under Washing- 
ton in America. All in vain. Discord, treason, and, 
above all, the indifference of the mass of the nation, who 
were still sunk in serfdom, paralyzed the efforts of the 
patriots. The king, Stanislas, who for a moment had 
appeared to be stirred into enthusiasm, yielded to the 
threats of Catherine II. and the King of Prussia, and 
withdrew his support from the reforming party, under 
pretext of the all-pervading fear with which the French 
Revolutionists had inspired the hearts of the sover- 
eigns. It had seemed possible that the cause of Hberty 
should triumph; but the three powers that had already 
made the second partition renewed their aUiance. 

PaS^tion Catherine sent the terrible Souvaroff to crush the 

1795. Poles. Kosciusko was wounded and taken prisoner, 
and ended his life in Switzerland. Praga, the beautiful 
subiurb of Warsaw, was carried by assault, and given up 
to fire and sword. Thousands of the inhabitants were 
massacred. Warsaw, horrified at so much bloodshed, 
surrendered. Stanislas Poniatowski was ordered to 
abdicate, and "in the name of peace and order" the 
three powers divided the kingdom between them, and 
Poland was wiped out of the European map of nations. 
Prussia (Frederic WilHam II.) received PoKsh Prussia 

and nearly all of Poland proper, from Posen and 

Warsaw to Grodno on the Niemen. 
Austria (Emperor Francis I.) received Gahcia. 
Russia (Catherine 11.) took Eastern Poland, Podolia, 

Volhynia, and Lithuania. 
In 1832 the old kingdom of Poland was formally in- 
corporated into Russia by a ukase of Nicholas I., Czar. 



BOOK 11. 



NOTE. 

It would be impossible to understand how Prassia came to hold 
such a prominent position in European affairs without reviewing 
its indi^ddual history; so we must retrace our steps to show the 
growth of the Uttle electorate of Brandenburg, and the rise of 
the Hohenzollern family to their present zenith of power and im- 
portance at the head of the German Empire. 



THE RISE OF PRUSSIA. 
CHAPTER LIV. 

THE MARGRAVATE OF BRANDENBURG OR 
BRANNYBOR. 

In the old days of the great Migration of Nations, a 
wild and warhke Sclavonic tribe of Wends ^ (Venedi), 
conquered after a time by the Borussi, came from their 
eastern dwelhngs in Central Asia, and settled themselves 
on the right bank of the Elbe. 

Between them and the Germans there always ex- 
isted the bitterest hatred; and in order to keep the 
savage Wends and Borussi in check, the Emperor a.d. 928. 
Heinrich L, the Fowler, established a "Count of the 
Marches" on the left bank of the river to prevent en- 
croachments. This region was known as the "Nord- 
mark". When one Count died, another knight was 
sent by the Emperor to take his place. 

In in^-iy Count Albert of Ballenstadt was appointed Albert the 

^ . ^^ Bear, 1133. 

to the post. His courage was so great that he was nick- 
named " the Bear," and his rule was wise and prosperous. 
He increased his territories, making them hereditary in 
his family; introduced clever workmen from Germany 
to teach the Borussi how to carry on industries and hus- 
bandry; taught them the German language and cus- 
toms, and caused Christianity to be preached. He en- 

^ Some descendants of the original Wends are still to be seen in 
parts of Prussia, distinct in dialect, dress, manners, and customs 
from the present inhabitants. 

187 



i88 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Foundation courasfcd agriculture, founded several cities — of which 

of Berlin. o to > 

Berhn and Spandau were the principal — and called his 
dominion the "Margravate of Brandenburg". 

Out of this Margravate sprang the mighty kingdom 
of Prussia. 

The successors of Albert the Bear were prudent gov- 
ernors, and his family held the title of "Markgraf" 
until 1320, when the last Markgraf died without leaving 
a son. 



1191. 



Mari en- 
burg. 



Decline of 
the 

Teutonic 
Order. 



THE TEUTONIC KNIGHTS. 

The Teutonic knights were a military and religious 
order, founded about 1191 by Frederic of Swabia, 
through the humanity of the Germans (Teutons) to the 
sick and wounded in the Holy Land under Guy de 
Lusignan, before Acre. After the sixth crusade these 
knights were obHged to resign their hold over Jerusa- 
lem, and yield up the holy places to the Turks. On 
their way back to Europe they were invited by the Po- 
lish Duke, Boleslas V., to come and help the Poles 
against their fierce, barbarous enemies, the Borussi. 

The knights accepted the offer, and made themselves 
renowned by their conquest of Prussia and the provinces 
on the Baltic Sea. At first they fixed their headquarters 
on the Vistula at Kulm, then they founded the fortress of 
Thorn, and later they made Marienburg — lately built 
— their capital from 1309 to 1457, when they estabhshed 
themselves at Konigsberg. 

But the kinghts soon became corrupted by the im- 
mense riches with which they had been endowed by the 
fervent piety of the Christians, and instead of keeping 
up their character for undaunted courage and devoted 
consistency of life, they gave way to self-indulgence and 
a love of display which gradually ruined the order, and 
contributed to the weakening of the very kingdom 



THE RISE OF PRUSSIA. 1 89 

which they had undertaken to support. It is told of 
one of the Grand Masters that he gave an entertain- 
ment to his knights, when the guests were served with 
thirty courses, and then allowed to carry away with them 
the gold plates and cups on which they had been served. 
Luxury produced vices of all descriptions, and the more 
the knights degenerated, the harder became their con- 
duct towards the unfortunate serfs and other classes 
in their power, till at last the Prussians rose in revolt 
against the knights. 

In the battle of Tannenberg, 1410, they called in the Tannen- 
Poles to their assistance, and placed themselves under 1410'. 
their protection. A large portion of the Teutonic pos- 
sessions was incorporated into Poland in 1456, and into 
Brandenburg in 1 52 1. 

At this day when Poland has ceased to appear on the Poland,^ 
map of Europe, it is difficult to reaHze what a position it 
held in the fifteenth century, when at the height of its 
power its possessions reached from the Baltic to the Car- 
pathians, and comprehended Poland, Lithuania, West- 
ern Prussia (taken from the Teutonic knights), PodoKa 
(Volhynia), and the Ukraine or Little Russia within 
its limits. 

Prussia was then only known as a jief of Poland. 

When the successors of Albert the Bear died out, 1320. 
a long strife ensued as to who should inherit the Mar- 
gravate of Brandenburg; and at last the German Em- 
peror, Ludwig of Bavaria, decided to give it to his own 
son Ludwig. 
' Three Margraves of the Bavarian House ruled sue- Bavarian 

House. 

cessively: — 

1323. Ludwig I. 

1352. Ludwig 11. {First Elector). 
1365. Otto the Sluggard. 
The Emperor Charles IV. made Ludwig II. "Elector 



190 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

of Germany," and from thenceforth Brandenburg ranks 
as an Electorate. The three Bavarian princes ruled 
badly, and Otto the Sluggard gave his lands back to the 
Emperor. Charles IV. took the management of affairs 
into his own hands, restored peace and order, and on his 

1378. L death his son Sigismund of Luxemburg became Elector 
of Brandenburg. The other son of Charles IV., Wen- 
ceslas the Drunkard, was on the throne of Germany 
leading such a scandalous Kfe that Sigismund himself 
was proposed by one party of electors as far more 
suitable to take his brother's place ; for as King of Hun- 
gary and Regent of Prussia, he was showing himself a 
despotic ruler. But there was considerable difference 

Frederic of Opinion amongst the electors, till Frederic of Hohen- 

berg^^i4T5. zollcm, Couut of Nuremberg, undertook to obtain the 
general suffrage on behalf of his cousin Sigismund. He 
succeeded; and in 14 10, on the death of Rupert of the 
Rhine, Sigismund was unanimously elected to take his 

1417. place. In reward for his good offices, the Emperor 

Sigismund sold the Electorate of Brandenburg to 
Frederic of HohenzoUern for 100,000 ducats, and thus 
placed at the head of Prussia the present reigning 
family. 



CHAPTER LV. 

The Hohenzollern House was divided in the fifteenth Hohen- 
century into two branches, the Swabian and Fran- Family, 
conian. Frederic of Niiremberg belonged to the Fran- 
conian branch. 

The Hohenzollerns have been distinguished, ever 
since the days of this first Burggraf of Nuremberg, for 
certain excellent traits of character, which have been 
handed down to their descendants, and firmly stamped 
upon the members of the family. These characteristics 
have certainly helped to place the family in its present 
position, at the head of the greatest central European 
power of the day. Conspicuous amongst these qualities 
are thrift, strong common sense, a keen love of justice, 
indomitable courage, and a clear-sighted perception 
of what is most for the good of the country, and 
what is due from the sovereign, as the "Father of his 
people". This clear-sightedness, and single-hearted 
devotion to duty, activity of mind, and fixedness of pur- 
pose, give a power which is irresistible; the idea which 
they hold of their own position is that the sovereign is 
the "first servant of the State," and this begets the most 
absolute trust from all classes, and explains the attach- 
ment of the people for their king. The Hohenzollerns 
expect and desire to be looked upon as the " sovereign 
of the poor," they are men of incorruptible rectitude, 
and are enthusiastic educators. 

191 



Twelve 
Hohen- 
zollern 
Electors 



192 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Twelve electors of the same family followed Frederic 
of Nuremberg. 

ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG (hOHENZOLLERNS) . 



Electors 
only. 



Dukes 

and ^ 
Electors 



141 5, Frederic I. of Nuremberg. 

1440, Frederic 11. (Ironside). 

1470, Albert III. (Achilles). 

1476, Johann III. (Cicero). 

1499, Joachim I. (Nestor). 

1535, Joachim II. (Hector). 

1 57 1, Johann George. 

1598, Joachim Frederic, m. Eleanor of 

Prussia. 
1608, Johann Sigismund, of Poland. First 
Duke of Prussia, m. Anne of Prussia. 
1 619, George WilHam. 
1 1640, Frederic William, the "Great Elector" 
King. 1688, Frederic III. First King of Prussia. 
1446. In the reign of Frederic 11. (Ironside), Casimir of 

Poland assisted the Prussians against the oppression of 
the Teutonic knights. 
1525. In 1525, Albert of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the 

Teutonic Order, renounced the Roman Catholic religion, 
embraced Lutheranism, and was acknowledged Duke of 
1544. East Prussia, to be held as a fief of Poland. In 1544, he 

founded the University of Konigsberg, and died in 1568, 
leaving two grand-daughters as heiresses of his dukedum. 
1569. Prussia became a Fief of Poland. 

1608. Johann Sigismund of Poland became Elector of 

Brandenburg, and Duke of Prussia, by his marriage 
with Anne, eldest grand-daughter of Duke Albert. 
The second grand-daughter Eleanor had married 
Joachim Frederic, elector in 1598. 



CHAPTER LVI. 

THE "GREAT ELECTOR". 
When Frederic William came to the throne at the ^^?,^e"c 

William, 

age of twenty, his lands were lying waste, and his country Great 
was devastated by the Thirty Years' War, which had 1640. 
been raging for the last twenty-two years. In the cities 
more houses stood empty than inhabited, thousands 
were dying of hunger and pestilence; all commerce had 
ceased, the schools and churches stood empty, and only 
misery was to be seen on every hand. 

Frederic William, with his tall, imposing figure, bril- 
liant blue eyes, shining with the light of a dauntless 
courage, determined not for a moment to lose heart, but 
to see and judge for himself. 

He travelled through all his dominions, and, being 
then thoroughly convinced of the distress of his people, 
he set himself to improve their condition. 

He sent to Holland, Friesland, and Switzerland for improve- 

' ments. 

workmen, to till the ground; gave farms to the old sol- 
diers, and wood to build houses ; for many years, spend- 
ing his own revenue to enrich the country. Each peas- 
ant was compelled to plant an orchard; no country- 
man might marry, unless he had grafted six fruit-trees 
and planted six oaks. New roads were constructed, 
churches rebuilt; every village had its new school, fresh 
trades were started, and manufactures established. 
The rivers Oder and Spree were connected by the 

193 



194 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

"Frederic William Canal," in order to facilitate com- 
merce. The elector's wife, the pious and warm-hearted 
Duchess Luisa, strove in every way to assist her hus- 
band in his good works; and, amongst other things, she 

Potatoes, introduced the cultivation of the potato, which soon 
became a boon to the poor. 

Thirty Unfortunately, these peaceful occupations were fre- 

War. quently interrupted by war. For eight years after his 

accession, Frederic WiUiam was forced to take part in 
the still raging Thirty Years' War. He embraced the 
reformed reHgion, separated himself from Austria, and 
joined with the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus. 

1648. By the treaty of Westphalia he obtained possession 

of Halberstadt, Minden, Magdeburg, and other terri- 
tories, with the Duchy of Prussia, and the Duchy of 

1657. Cleves; and in 1657, he threw off the yoke of Poland. 

His character for " HohenzoUern " rectitude of pur- 
pose was displayed even in his poHtical movements. 

When Louis XV. of France — desiring to annex Hol- 
land, as he had already annexed Spain — employed the 

AiiSnce most clcver stratagems to dissolve the Triple Alliance of 
Holland, Sweden, and England, he set to work to win 
over the European powers to assist him. He gained the 
Kling of Sweden by the ofEer of subsidies, and the King 
of England (Charles 11.) by promises of active assistance. 
The Emperor of Germany, Leopold II., was also in- 
duced to Hsten. 

The Great Elector of Brandenburg was the only 
sovereign deaf to the persuasions of Louis XV. to 
overthrow a republic whose ruin would have been fatal 
to the interests of Protestant reform, to Germany 
itself, and indeed to all Europe. 

FehrbiUen, At the battle of FehrUllen in 167'; the Elector de- 
1675. ' "^ 

feated the Swedes, and won back the greater part of 

Pomerania. 



THE RISE OF PRUSSIA. I95 

This is considered the starting point of the rise of 
Prussia. 

Frederic WilHam died in 1688. A splendid statue, 1688. 
showing him seated on horseback, was erected on the 
long bridge at Berhn, with armed figures in stone lying 
at his feet, in remembrance of the Great Elector as 
prince, warrior, and Christian. 



THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 



CHAPTER LVII. 



Frederic 
III. (first 
King,) 
1700-13. 



Kings of 
Prussia, 



Coronation. 



Frederic I. 



Frederic 
WiUiam I., 
1713. 



The last Elector of Brandenburg was Frederic HI., 
son of the Great Elector. As his territories increased, 
he desired fervently to raise Prussia to a kingdom; but 
this could not be done without the consent of the Em- 
peror, and for a long time it was not attainable. At 
length, after Frederic had assisted Charles VI. in the 
war with Spain, known as the " War of the Spanish Suc- 
cession," the Emperor conceded his wish in the Treaty of 
Utrecht; and the Elector crowned himself and his wife, 
Sophia Elizabeth, with great state at Konigsberg, as 
King and Queen of Prussia. He is therefore called 
Frederic HI. Elector, and Frederic I. King. 

Frederic William I. succeeded his father. He was a 
strict, prudent man, rigidly economical, and very severe 
with his children; devotedly fond of his soldiers, whom 
he called his "blue children," and no expense was 
spared in providing for his favorite "Potsdam regiment," 
as long as men could be found over six feet to fill it. It 
is stated that men of the required height were taken out 
of any profession for the purpose, and that a regular 
system of kidnapping was carried on by hired ruffians. 
One instance given is that of a priest, snatched from the 
altar, whilst celebrating divine service, because he was 
tall enough to fill a vacant place in the regiment. 
Whether these accounts are exaggerated or not, much 
has been said against the king for the severity of his 

196 



THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 1 9/ 

actions. At the same time, he undoubtedly contributed 
much to the after prosperity of Prussia. He estab- 
Hshed compulsory education, the ofl&cial system, and 
universal mihtary service, jB.lled the State coffers, and 
re-organized every department of his kingdom. He 
improved and raised the position of the peasants, a fbo?°h?d 
work which was afterwards completed by his son, who 
abolished serfdom altogether. On his death, Frederic 
William I. left a prosperous State, a standing army, and 
a well-filled exchequer, for the use of his son and suc- 
cessor, Frederic II., the Great. 



CHAPTER LVIII. 
Frederic As a cMld, Frederic II. was of course destined by his 

II., the . •' 

Great, father to be a soldier-king. At eight years of age he 

1740-86. . . " o J o 

was dressed in uniform, and at eleven commanded on 
horseback a detachment of cadets; but his father's 
excessive strictness and often brutal severity with the 
boy, disgusted him, and rendered his life most unhappy. 
The young prince preferred to spend his time in reading 
and writing French poetry,^ Hterature and music, rather 
than occupying himself with public affairs ; and he was 
chiefly known at that time as a lover of letters, and the 
friend of Voltaire. His "effeminate tastes," as they 
were considered, frequently brought down upon him 
the fierce wrath of his stern father, and he was treated 
with such cruelty that at last, weary of the king's unnat- 
ural behavior, the prince left his home, accompanied by 
his friend and confidant. Lieutenant Katte, meaning to 
take refuge in England; he was captured and brought 
back to the palace; Frederic Wilham was so furious 
that he gave orders to have his son shot as a deserter, 
and his life was only with the greatest difi&culty spared 
by the entreaties of two of the king's officers. Katte 
was hanged before his eyes, and the prince himself put 
into prison. Even when released, he was kept more or 
less as a prisoner during the remainder of his father's life- 

^ The French writer Voltaire was the object of Frederic's great 
admiration, and he used to send his compositions to him for cor- 
rection. Voltaire would contemptuously remark, "He is send- 
ing me some more of his dirty linen to wash ''. 

19S 



THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 1 99 

time, though, after a while, their relations became of a 
friendlv nature; and certainly the prince must have 
admired his father's devotion to the welfare of his king- 
dom, for he afterwards carried out his designs with 
appreciative zeal. 

The death of his father raised Frederic II. to the 
throne of Prussia, and the new king soon showed that 
he surpassed all his predecessors in genius, military 
talents, and poHtical ability, and was prepared to take 
his place amongst the sovereigns and captains of mod- 
ern days. The great Elector had raised Prussia to the 
first rank amongst German States; Frederic II. raised 
it to the first rank of European power. One of the first 
acts of his reign was to proclaim war against Maria 
Theresa of Austria, for the purpose of winning back 
Silesia, which he had determined to annex permanently 
to the kingdom of Prussia. 

FIRST SILESTAN WAR. 

Nearly thirty years before this time the German pragmatic 
Emperor Charles VI. had made the law called the |haries"v/ 
^^ Pragmatic Sanction,''^ by which he left his dominions 
to his daughter Maria Theresa. The other nations of 
Europe had been induced to countenance the arrange- 
ment, and on her accession in 1740 to the hereditary 
kingdom of Austria, she desired also to be recognized 
in accordance with her father's wish, as Empress of Ger- 
many in place of the other candidate, Charles VII. (see 
German Emperors). This claim gave rise to much dis- 
sension throughout Europe. 

Frederic II. meanwhile claimed Silesia as an old fief 
of Brandenburg, and was determined to regain posses- 
sion of it. With 30,000 men he crossed the frontier, and 
met the army of Maria Theresa at MoUvitz. The queen MoUvitz.; 



200 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Peace of 
Breslau. 



had said disdainfully, "A few hussar regiments will be 
sufficient to dislodge the Markgraf of Brandenburg!" 
She did not know Frederic. His two able generals, 
Schwerin and Dessauer, completely routed the Aus- 
trian troops; and Maria Theresa — occupied as she was 
with asserting her rights to Germany against the Euro- 
pean powers — was compelled to make peace at Bres- 
lau., and bestow the longed-for Silesia on the King of 
Prussia. 

SECOND SILESIAN WAR. 



1744-5. 



Hohen- 
friedburg 
and 
Kesseldorf. 

Treaty of 
Dresden, 
1745- 



Frederic the Great felt assured that Maria Theresa 
would wrest Silesia once more out of his hands directly 
she should be free to enter into a new campaign. For 
this he was too crafty to wait; and accordingly, in 
1744, he entered Bohemia and attacked the beautiful 
city of Prague. The Austrian armies went to the rescue, 
but Frederic overthrew one at Hohenfriedburg, and 
the other was dispersed by Dessauer at Kesseldorf. 
Again the baffled queen made peace, and again Silesia 
was confirmed to Frederic by the Treaty of Dresden, 
where he in return acknowledged Francis I. of Lorraine, 
the husband of Maria Theresa, as Emperor of Germany, 
Charles VII. having died in the early part of the year. 



THIRD SILESIAN WAR, OR SEVEN YEARS' WAR.* 

1756-63 The peace made at Dresden lasted for eleven years, 

but Maria Theresa could not forget Silesia. In 1756 
war was once more declared, and the European powers 
took sides in the quarrel. 

Prussia's only ally was England. Against these two 
were ranged Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, Sweden, 
and Poland. 



^ See also chap, li., "Seven Years' War". 



THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 20I 

The brilliancy of Frederic's generalship in the nu- ^l^l^ 
merous campaigns which followed compelled the admi- forndorf 
ration even of his enemies. He achieved victories over goii^' . , 

Hocmdrcn, 

the Austrians at Prague and Leuthen, 1756; over the Kiiners- 

. ry dori. 

French at Rosbach, 1757; over the Russians at Zorn- 1759. 
dorf, 1758. But he met with heavy reverses at Kolin, 
Hochkirch, and Kunersdorf; and he would certainly 
have been forced to succumb to the superior number of 
his enemies, had not the death of Ehzabeth, Empress of 
Russia, brought Peter III., a warm friend of Frederic, 1762. 
to the throne, when Sweden, following the example of 
Russia, withdrew from the contest, leaving Austria and 
Prussia to continue the war alone. 

The Peace of Huhertshiirg in 1763 at last brought it Peace 
to a conclusion, and Frederic remained in possession burg, 1763. 
of Silesia. 

It is said that the design of the partition of Poland ^ Partition 

^ , . oi Poland, 

emanated from the brain of Frederic the Great; but it 1772. 
probably dates back to the days of Frederic L, son of the 
Great Elector, in 17 10. In 1772 the unfortunate coun- 
try was torn to pieces by the three gigantic powers of 
Prussia, Austria, and Russia; Prussia gaining all Po- 
lish Prussia as far as the Netz (except Danzig and 
Thorn); Austria and Russia each taking a share, and 
so completely annihilating the power of the Poles. 

The last public act of Frederic the Great was the con- 1786. 
elusion of a commercial treaty with the United States 
of America. Gout and asthma, which ended in dropsy, last days, 
brought his life to a close at the age of seventy-five. He 
was a grand soldier, rapid and ingenious in seeing a way 
out of difficulties, cheerful in spirit; and from the kind- 
ness of his heart he was beloved by all classes, and com- 
monly called by the people " Alte Fritz" (Father Fritz). 

At the conclusion of the Seven Years' War, 1763, he 
^ See also chap. liii. 



202 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

did much to improve and restore the country; and fol- 
lowing the example of the Great Elector, he denied him- 
self personal expenditure in order to increase agricul- 
ture, commerce, and the raising of beautiful buildings. 
One specimen of these is to be seen in his palace of 
"Sans Souci" at Potsdam, which is adorned with lovely 
terraces, gardens and fountains, and filled with the books 
and treasures dear to the king's heart. The rooms 
built in one wing for Voltaire, the long corridor, up and 
down which Frederic would pace playing his flute and 
absorbed in the thought of State affairs, are still shown. 
Here the great king died in the arms of liis attendants, 
leaving no son to succeed him; and the crown passed to 
his nephew, Frederic William II. 



CHAPTER LIX. 
FREDERIC WILLIAM II. 
On the death of Frederic the Great, his nephew, Fred- Frederic 

. William 

eric WilHam II., came to the throne m 1786. One of 11., 
the first acts of his reign was to join England in restor- 
ing Holland to the Stadtholder WilHam IV. in 1787. 
(The latter was unable to hold his position, however, 
for more than seven years, when, on the conquest of his 
country, 1795, by the French, he retired and died in 
England.) 

The outbreak in France, the subsequent horrors 1792. 
of the Republic with its guillotine and assassination, 
roused Europe to arms in deepest indignation. 

Frederic WilHam 11. could not look on unmoved. First 

Coalition, 

He entered into an alliance with England, Holland, 1793. 
Spain, Sardinia, and Austria, in order to stem the tide 
of anarchy and bloodshed which, beginning in France, 
threatened to overwhelm the whole of Europe. Fred- 
eric WilHam joined the Emperor Leopold I. in assisting 
Louis XVL, and sent an army, under the command of 
the Duke of Brunswick, to the seat of war in Flanders. 
But this seemed to rouse the French to fresh fury. The 
allies were driven out of Flanders. The French Repub- 
lican armies, under Pichegru and Jourdan, crossed the 
frozen Rhine, and conquered Holland, annexed Bel- 
gium, and took back all the German territory lying to 
the west of the Rhine. 
In 1794 Spain and Prussia retired from the alHance, 1794. 

203 



204 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

leaving Austria to contend alone with the advancing 
conquerors. 

Frederic William united with Catherine II. of Russia 
in arranging for the partition of Poland in 1793, and in 
1795 he received his share of the spoHation of the 
unhappy country. (See Partition of Poland.) He 
1797. died in 1797, leaving the throne to his son Frederic 

WilUam III. 



CHAPTER LX. 

FREDERIC WILLIAM III. 
When Frederic William III. ascended the throne in Frederic 

Wilhara 

November, 1707, Europe was in the wildest confusion, ni-, „ 

. I 797-1840. 

and the king found himself surrounded by distress and 
difficulties on all sides. In his troubles he had one con- 
stant helper and comforter in his faithful wife Louise, 
Princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the most beautiful 
and charming, as well as the most deeply reHgious, prin- 
cess ever seen in Prussia. At first Frederic WilHam dis- 
played a vacillating poHcy. He joined the Armed Neu- ^gj^^ai't 
trality, formed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark against 
England, and seized Hanover and Bremen in 1801. 
Then he recognized the claims of Napoleon Buonaparte, 
and supported him against Russia; but on the abdication 
of the Emperor Francis II. — when Germany seemed 1806. 
to be under the feet of Napoleon, and all Europe was takes the 
trembling at the mercy of the inexorable conqueror — 
Prussia turned against his encroachments, and dashed 
into the strife with splendid intrepidity. Saxony was 
invaded, but at Jena the Prussian army suffered a com- Jena. 
plete defeat. 

The mihtary power with which Frederic the Great had 
wrought such marvels half a century before was over- 
thrown. Napoleon entered Berlin triumphantly, and 
announced the "BerHn Decree". The royal family of Berlin 
Prussia fled to Konigsberg, and later to Memel on the 
frontier. Napoleon estabhshed himself in the beautiful 

205 



206 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

palace of Sans Souci, and the French seized innumerable 

valuable works of art and sent them to Paris.^ Then 

Russia came forward to aid Prussia, and two bloody 

Eyiau, battles were fought at Eylau and Friedland. Still Na- 

Fnedland. ° ■' 

poleon remained conqueror. With a bleeding heart 
Treaty of Frederic WilKam III. was forced to make peace at Tilsit, 

Tilsit, 1807. . „ . . 1 ir 1 • 1 • 1 -i r 

m 1807, giving up naif ms kingdom and 100,000,000 

marks, and promising in future only to retain 42,000 

soldiers. Prussia was reduced to the greatest straits. 

Queen The bitter trouble into which her country was plunged 

Louise. . ^ 

went to the heart of the gentle Queen Louise, and she 
determined to try and move Napoleon to compassion 
by a personal interview. Her grace and beauty would 
have roused the pity of any one less inexorable, but he 
even forgot himself so far as to use language which no 
gentleman would have allow^ed. On one occasion Na- 
poleon offered her a rose. She hesitated a moment, and 
then held out her hand with a lovely smile, "Yes, if you 
will give Magdeburg with it". "You will please to 
remember that it is not for you to ask. You have only 
to take what I choose to give," was the harsh reply of 
the Emperor; and he afterwards boasted that he had 
withstood her hke " oilcloth against rain ". The Queen 
sold all her jewels to help the poor, only keeping back 
one necklace of pearls, saying: "Pearls are emblems of 
tears, and I have shed so many! " The sorrows of her 
j8jo_ country broke her heart, and she died in 1810, charging 

her two sons — Frederic Wilham and William, boys of 
fifteen and thirteen years of age — on her deathbed to 
win back their kingdom from France when once they 
should be grown to man's estate. She was buried at 
Charlottenburg, where, in 1840, her husband was laid 
by her side. 

^ They were afterwards returned through the intervention of 
the Duke of Wellington. 



THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 20/ 

Frederic William set himself after the death of his 
beloved wife to restore some sort of order to his country, 
but he was met by countless difl&culties. In 1812, he 1812 
was compelled to furnish a contingent against Russia, in 
Napoleon's great campaign. From this time, the for- 
tunes of Prussia are so mixed up with the affairs of Na- 
poleon, and the universal European struggle against the 
usurper, that we must look to the era of Napoleon for 
the further rise of Prussian power, and its final suprem- 
acy in Central Europe. Frederic William III. called on 
his people to resist Buonaparte; in 1813, concluded the Treaty of 
Treaty of KaHsch with the Russian Czar; shared in the 1813. 
victories of 1813 and 1814; visited London, 1814; joined 
the Holy Alliance, September, 181 5; recovered all his 
territories at the first Congress of Vienna; made a con- 
cordat with the Pope, 182 1; joined the second Congress 
of Vienna, in 1822; obtained the free navigation of the 
Rhine, 1826, and died in 1840. 1840. 



BOOK III. 



ERA OF NAPOLEON. 



CHAPTER LXL 
Looking back a few years we find that Buonaparte's First 

, . . , P , ,. Coalition, 

power daily grew more despotic, m spite oi the coah- 1793. 
tion made between Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain 
against France in 1793. 

In 1796, one French army under Moreau entered 1796. 
Germany, crossed the Rhine, and marched through the 
Black Forest to the Danube; another army under 
Jourdan entered Germany by the Main, but was beaten 
back by the gallant Archduke Charles of Austria, com- 
manding the forces for his brother, the Emperor Francis 
11. ; and this disaster caused Moreau also to retreat. 
The most decisive engagements were those in Italy. It [Jf jjafy^"^ 
seemed as if Buonaparte had the power of imparting 
electric force to his soldiers. By dint of genius and 
audacity he conveyed 35,000 of his troops, actually des- 
titute of provisions of any kind, across the Alps, routed 
60,000 Austro-Piedmontese troops, traversed the Po, 
entered Milan in triumph, and was received as a deliv- 
erer raised up to free the Milanese from the hated yoke 
of the Austrians. Advancing still further the French 
reached the Adige; twice over fresh Austrian armies 
were collected, but only to suffer defeat again at Cas- CastigUone, 

•' ° Areola, 

tighone. Areola, and Rivoli. The famous stronghold RivoU, 

f' ' 11 Mantua, 

of Mantua succumbed. The Italian States, seized with 1796-7. 
fear, offered terms of peace to the victorious Corsican, 

211 



212 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Capitula- 
tion of 
Vienna. 



Peace of 
Campo 
Formio, 
1797- 



Campaign 
in Egypt, 
1798. 



1799. 

Second 

Coalition. 



Marengo, 

Hohen- 

linden, 

1800. 

Treaty of 

Luneville, 

1801. 



and Pius VI. gave up to France a considerable portion 
of the States of the Church. Venice rose in revoh, but 
in vain; the ancient Repubhc was suppressed. Thus 
master of Italy, Buonaparte turned his march towards 
Vienna. In vain the Austrians, under their bravest 
General, Archduke Charles, tried to stem the torrent of 
invasion. They were obliged to capitulate, and a peace 
was signed at Campo Formio, in 1797. The Emperor 
of Germany ceded to France his rights to Belgium and 
the Ionian Islands, receiving in return Venice, Istria, 
and Dalmatia, on condition that he would recognize 
the Cisalpine Repubhc (Lombardy, Modena, Ferrara, 
and the Romagna), and the Ligurian or Genoese Repub- 
hc, both created by Buonaparte. 

In 1798, Buonaparte undertook his celebrated cam- 
paign in Egypt, in order to weaken the power of Eng- 
land in India, by stopping her commerce, and con- 
quering the East. Unforeseen circumstances recalled 
him to France, and the campaign was abandoned as 
quickly as it had been begun. Whilst Nelson was de- 
stroying the French fleet in the Mediterranean, Buona- 
parte was making himself First Consul in Paris. His 
attention was next drawn to North Italy, which had 
been seized by the alHed powers of Austria and Russia; 
and in the great battles of Marengo and Hohenhnden 
he reconquered Italy, and made a treaty with Austria 
at Luneville (the terms of which were similar to those 
of Campo Formio), once more recognizing the Cis- 
alpine and Ligurian Repubhcs. 

Fighting his way step by step to the giddy eminence 
that his soul longed for, Buonaparte engaged first one 
country and then another in conflict, and beheving him- 
self and his armies to be invincible, he made his course 
one continual triumph. Unfortunate persons who 
crossed his path or interfered with his designs were 



ERA OF NAPOLEON. 213 

remorselessly swept away. Pichegru, Moreau, and the 
Due d'Enghien, last of the Condes, were the principal 
victims of 1804. Two months after the murder of the 1804. 

Corona- 
latter, Buonaparte was declared by the French Senate tion of 

and Tribunal, " Emperor of the French ". Pope Pius 
VII. came from Rome to bless the coronation; and the 
son of a Corsican advocate was at the head of one of the 
mightiest powers in Europe. Not content with having 
secured France, he next desired to annex the whole of 
Europe; one country after another 3delded to him, 
and he placed his own kinsmen on the various thrones. 

England, Russia, and Austria struggled in vain to Third 
stem the tide of victory; they could not withstand Na- 
poleon I. At the terrible battle of Austerlitz — called ^"steriitz. 
the battle of the three Emperors (Alexander I. of Russia, 
Francis 11. of Germany, on the one side, and Napoleon 
on the other, watching the battle from the heights) — 
the combined forces of Russia and Austria were com- 
pletely defeated, and Austria compelled by the Peace of Peace of 
Presburg to give up much of her most beautiful tern- 1805. 
tory, Istria, Dalmatia, Venice, Tyrol, etc. 



Coalition. 



CHAPTER LXII. 



Trafalgar, 
1805. 



1806. 



Confedera- 
tion cf the 
Rhine, 
1806. 



The struggle with Russia was only suspended; with 
England it continued, and England's "Austerlitz" 
was fought at sea by the English fleet under Nelson, 
who won the brilliant victory of Trafalgar, 20th Octo- 
ber, 1805. 

The Peace of Presburg was followed by fresh usurpa- 
tions and distributions of crowns to Napoleon's brothers, 
sisters, and generals, who were, however, only to be con- 
sidered as Buonaparte's lieutenants in the various coun- 
tries. 

Naples was given to Joseph Buonaparte. 

Holland to Louis Buonaparte. 

Eugene Beauharnais (Napoleon's stepson) was 

named Viceroy of Italy. 
Murat, husband of Caroline Buonaparte, was made 

Duke of Berg. 
General Berthier, Prince of Neuchatel. 
Germany was divided into portions. 
Baden was made a grand duchy. 
Wiirtemberg, Saxony, and Bavaria, kingdoms. 
The Emperor Francis II. abdicated the throne of 
Germany, and became Francis I. of Austria 
alone. 
The German Empire, which had lasted nearly a 
thousand years, ceased to exist. 

The German Princes were united in the "Confed- 
eration of the Rhine," of which Napoleon himself was 
declared Protector. 

The independence of Europe had never been in such 

214 



ERA OF NAPOLEON. ^ 2 15 

danger. In England the intrepid champion of hberty, 
WilKam Pitt, died with the anguished cry on his Ups, 
"O my country!" Still England was determined to 
make a desperate struggle for the rights of Europe, as 
well as for herself. Nothing could be expected of Aus- 
tria after the crushing defeat of AusterHtz; but Prussia 
— which had been holding aloof from the contest, biding 
her time for a favorable moment to move — now indig- 
nant at seeing the partition of Germany, came forward 
to form a new coahtion with England and Russia, fourth 

^ , Coalition. 

With admirable courage, Prussia took the offensive and 
marched into Saxony, which was upheld by Napoleon, 
only to be met by the invincible armies of Buonaparte; 
and notwithstanding the utmost exertions of the brave 
Prussian Generals Bliicher, Colberg, and Grandenz, 
they were defeated in the battles of Auerstadt and Jena, Auerstadt 
fought on the same day; and the French made their ijth ^^^' 
triumphal entry into BerHn, declaring the Prussian j8o5_ ^^' 
monarchy to be overthrown, and launching the "Berlin 5®^^^ 
Decree," which was to put a stop to all English com- 
merce, and practically to place Great Britain in a state 
of blockade. This blockade was Napoleon's ereat Continental 

^ ^ Blockade. 

stroke of poHcy. He desired to dominate Europe, but 
could not do so until he had subjugated England. On 
the other hand, he could not lower England without the 
previous subjection of Europe. This circular policy 
was fatal to him. In vain he tried to excite the other 
maritime powers to support him against the " tyranny of 
England on the sea ". A new proof of England's su- 
premacy was given in the attack on Constantinople in 
1807 (September). The Continental powers were not 
ready to come to an open rupture with England; and, 
in fact, every effort made by the French Emperor to 
rouse them to resistance only made them the more 
anxious to keep him in check. 



2l6 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Advancing from Berlin onwards as far as Warsaw, 
Napoleon attempted, in spite of the lateness of the 
season, to attack Russia; but his troops were every- 
where beaten back, and he was constrained to retire 

ilb^l^isoy. ^^ winter quarters. Some weeks later the bold Russian 
General Beningsen thought to surprise the French by 
an unexpected attack, and an engagement — one of the 
most desperate on record — took place at Eylau. Sixty 
thousand dead and wounded men were left stretched 
on the snow fields; both sides declared themselves 
victors. Beningsen, in fact, retired, but Napoleon did 
not venture to follow him. The war re-opened in the 
summer of 1807, but this time it was short and decisive. 

Friediand, The Russians were beaten at Friedland on 14th Tune, 

June, 1807. ^ ^ J ' 

the anniversary of Marengo. Napoleon followed up 
his victory and reached Meinen. Here Alexander 
demanded a peace, which was signed at Tilsit, July, 
TUsif Tui ^^°7- The King of Prussia ceded to Napoleon his 
1807. PoUsh provinces and the territories he possessed be- 

tween the Rhine and the Elbe. The former formed 
the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and were now united with 
Saxony, which was erected into a kingdom. Out of the 
latter — together with Hesse, Brunswick, and part of 
Hanover — Napoleon constructed the new kingdom of 
Westphaha, and gave it to his brother Jerome Buona- 
parte. Prussia alone was called upon to pay in the 
Treaty of Tilsit. Not only did the Czar not lose any- 
thing; but, on the contrary, Napoleon gave up to him 
Sweden and Turkey, and acknowledged the partition 
Continental of Poland. The only concession Alexander was called 
upon to make was his promise to adhere to the conti- 
nental blockade against England. 

Portugal having refused to adopt Napoleon's con- 
tinental system. General Junot was sent to occupy the 
country, and the royal house of Braganza retired to Brazil. 



ERA OF NAPOLEON. 21/ 

The throne of Spain was wrested from the Bourbons 1808. 
and given to Joseph Buonaparte, whilst the place formerly 
occupied by him in Naples was filled by Murat, Napo- 
leon's brother-in-law. 

This gave rise to the Peninsular War between France Peninsular 

. War 

and Spain (with the assistance of England), lasting five 1808-13. 
years. 

The Batavian Republic was turned into the King- 
dom of Holland, and conferred on Louis Buonaparte. 

Sweden was given to Bernadotte, Buonaparte's general, 
who governed wisely and well, and whose successors are 
still in possession of the throne. 

The Helvetic Confederation was formed into the 
Cantons of Switzerland. 

In 1809 Napoleon seized the remaining possessions 1809. 
of the Teutonic knights in Prussia, and aboHshed the 
order. 

Pope Pius VII. was the first of Napoleon's allies who 
refused to carry out the Berhn Decree to shut out Eng- 
land from all commerce in Italy. Napoleon, annoyed 
by this want of support, seized the Papal States. The 
Pope in return excommunicated him. Absolutely re- 
gardless of this sentence. Napoleon sent troops to 
carry off the Pope, who was actually put in prison at 
Savona from 1809 to 181 2, and only restored to his see 
upon the Emperor's downfall in 18 14. 



CHAPTER LXIII. 



1809. 

Fifth 

Coalition. 

Austria 

and 

England. 



Taking of 
Vienna. 



Wagram. 



Treaty of 

Vienna, 

1809. 



Divorce of 
Josephine, 
Dec, 1809, 



Second 
Marriage, 
ist April, 
1810. 



Birth of 
Duke of 
Reichstadt. 
1811. 



The Peninsular War occupied Napoleon's attention for 
only four months of 1809, when, hearing that Austria 
with a revived army of 500,000 men had taken the field 
against him, he dashed over the Rhine, defeated the 
Archduke in Bavaria, bombarded Vienna, and carried 
his standard through the streets, having accomphshed 
the whole affair in nine days. He then crossed the Dan- 
ube to the left bank, fought an indecisive battle there, 
and pressed forward to the great battle of Wagram. It 
was a terrible day of slaughter and defeat for the Aus- 
trians; and Francis I. was compelled to sign the Treaty 
of Viemia, and yield up to Napoleon large territories 
containing 2,000,000 of his subjects. His favorite Tyrol 
was given up to Bavaria by Napoleon's orders, in spite 
of the heroic defence of the beautiful country made by 
Hofer, Speckbacher, and the brave friar, Haspinger, in 
which miracles of valor were performed by the patriotic 
Tyrolese. Yet, in spite of his hatred of the country, 
Napoleon set his heart on allying himself with Austria, 
thinking that with the ancient House of Hapsburg to 
support him, his position would be secured. So Jo- 
sephine was divorced, and his marriage with the 
Archduchess Maria Luisa, daughter of the Emperor 
Francis I. of Austria, gave him the rank he coveted 
amongst the sovereigns of Europe. The birth of a son, 
on the 20th August, 181 1, seemed to secure to him the 
foundation of a dynasty. The baby was immediately 

218 



ERA OF NAPOLEON. 219 

created "King of Rome," and afterwards "Duke of 
Reichstadt," by his delighted father. 

In the same year as Napoleon's second marriage, his 
brother Louis Buonaparte, King of Holland, resigned 
his uneasy throne, rather than carry out his brother's 
harsh edicts with regard to the continental blockade 
against England. Thereupon, Holland, together with 
Hanover, Oldenburg, and the free cities of Bremen, 
Hamburg, and Liibeck, were incorporated into the 
French empire. 

The other European powers being now under his feet, Russian 
Napoleon turned against Russia, making his pretext for 1812. 
war that the Czar had violated the Berhn Decree by 
reopening commerce with England. In 181 2 Napoleon 
marched into Russia with 500,000^ men and 1200 can- 
nons, the conquered countries behind him each con- 
tributing a contingent. The Russians could not stand 
the first onset of such an army, and retreated, burning 
their villages behind them. Napoleon pressed on, and 
arrived at Moscow. Apparently deserted by the inhabi- 
tants, the ancient capital showed only empty houses 
and silent streets. A severe winter had set in, which 
taxed the French troops heavily, and they thankfully 
took up their quarters in the city, Napoleon instalKng 
himself in the Kremlin, the imperial palace. All seemed 
quiet and secure. But the night after their arrival fires 
broke out in all directions, Hghted by the Russians them- 
selves, who preferred to burn their beloved city to ashes 
rather than allow it to be a shelter for their enemies. 
The French troops fled from the flames, and found 
themselves out in the open country, exposed to such cold 
as has seldom been surpassed even in Russia, and to 
which they were totally unaccustomed. Napoleon, in Retreat 
despair, sent an entreaty to the Czar to make peace, but Moscow.' 
' Of this number Prussia was forced to furnish 20,000. 



220 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

a stern refusal was the only reply; and the French army 
had nothins: to do but to retreat to the frontier. But 
what a retreat! Far and wide no village or town was 
standing; no food or shelter was to be found. Storms 
of snow and ice burst over the heads of the unhappy 
soldiers. Each morning numbers of star\dng, half- 
frozen men were left lying helpless at the camp, only to 
be piked by the ferocious Cossacks who scoured the 
country on all sides, whilst the Russian cannon thun- 
dered perpetually around them. When the weakened 
army reached the Beresina, the most awful scene took 
place — thousands perished in the ice-blocked river. 
Napoleon himself fled in a sleigh, leaving his miserable 
troops, and made the best of his way to Paris. Out of 
the brilliant host of 500,000 with which Napoleon 
started, such vast numbers were killed in battle or per- 
ished with exposure to cold and hunger, or were taken 
captive by the Russians, that only 30,000 ever reached 
their own country. At the news of the retreat from 
Moscow, and the successes of Wellington in Spain, all 
Europe was excited, and all nations began to hope for 
dehverance. 



CHAPTER LXIV. 

Meantime, in Prussia Frederic William III. had been War of 

' Freedom, 

quietly preparing his people for a general war of free- 1813-15. 
dom, and training every boy and man in Prussia to bear 
arms. On Napoleon's crushing defeat in Russia, he 
seized his opportunity, and, quickly forming an alliance 
with Russia, he called on the Prussians to be ready. 
The enthusiasm was so overpowering that men and 
boys, youths and old men offered themselves as volun- 
teers. Women put on men's clothes and marched into 
camp. Ladies sold their jewels, ornaments, and even 
their wedding rings, and cut off their hair to raise money 
"for the Fatherland". Frederic William shed tears of 
joy at such a response to his call. On the 13th March 
war with France was declared. 

It is amazing to think that after the ignominious 
arrival of the defeated Emperor in Paris on iSth Decem- 
ber, 181 2, Napoleon should have been able, at the end 
of four months, to take the field at the head of 350,000 
men. But with the exception of Frederic Augustus of sixth or 

„ _ 1 . . , 7 , . Great 

Saxony, all Europe was this time arrayed against their Coaution. 
formidable adversary; even Bernadotte took part with 
the alHes, and brought a Swedish army to their assist- 
ance. The first battle was fought at Liitzen, close to Lutzen, 

. . 1813. 

the "Stone of the Swede," the alHed army taking the 

field under the fiery old cavalry officer, Bliicher — who 
was so much beloved that he was known amongst his 
men as "Father Bliicher," and so impetuous that he 

221 



222 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Bautzen. 



Leipsic, the 
Battle 
of the 
Nations. 



Retreat of 
Napoleon. 



Campaign 
in^France, 
1814. 



was called "Marshal Vorwarts"; and Napoleon said of 
him: "He is like a bull rushing on danger with his eyes 
shut ". This battle and that of Bautzen which followed 
were lost by the alhes, but were of no avail to Napoleon's 
cause. The Prussians fought with such courage that 
Buonaparte himself exclaimed: "These are not the 
Prussians of Jena!" 

After a truce of ten weeks the campaign reopened. 
Battle after battle was fought, till Napoleon gathered 
his exhausted forces together at Leipsic, and made his 
final desperate stand against his enemies. Every na- 
tionahty, except the Turks, was represented on the 
field, so that it has been aptly called the "Battle of the 
Nations". It opened on the i6th October, and lasted 
for three days. At first. Napoleon beat back the allies ; 
but his troops, composed of young men unaccustomed 
to the rigors of war, were worn out; and they were fur- 
ther weakened during the engagement by the defection 
of 10,000 Saxons, who went over to the allies. Napo- 
leon resolved to retreat. He set his men in motion, and, 
leaving them in charge of the Eling of Saxony and the 
courageous generals. Marshal Macdonald and Prince 
Poniatowski, nephew of the last King of Poland, he 
left them. The retreat was most disastrous. Frederic 
Augustus of Saxony was taken prisoner. In spite of the 
most heroic efforts of the generals to protect the fugitives, 
numbers perished; and when they reached the Elster, 
they found that after Napoleon had crossed it in safety, 
the single bridge which spanned the river had been 
destroyed. Hundreds were drowned, and Prince Ponia- 
towski, trying to swim his horse across, was dragged 
down and perished. 

At the beginning of the following year the allied 
armies entered France, and Napoleon once more sum- 
moned all his energies to meet them and keep them in 



ERA OF NAPOLEON. 223 

check. Engagement after engagement took place with 
varying success, and hairbreadth escapes on either side. 
Suddenly, Napoleon made a feint of retreat towards the 
Rhine, thinking that the alUes would follow him, and 
that he would be able to cut off their retreat. Instead of 
this, they only sent a general with 10,000 men in pur- 
suit, whilst they themselves marched straight on to Paris, 
and the gates were opened to them on the 31st March 
by General Marmont. Napoleon was in absolute dis- 
may at finding the alHes in possession of the capital. 
When he reached Fontainebleau — too late to retrieve Abdication 
his fortunes — he was formally deposed by decree of the poieon. 
Senate, and on the 4th April he signed the deed of abdi- 
cation. The Httle island of Elba in the Mediterranean Elba, 
was given to him as his territory. He took leave of his 
imperial guard, embracing their standard with fervent 
kisses, and on 20th April a British man-of-war conveyed 
him to his exile. His Austrian consort, Maria Luisa, 
made a few faint offers to join him; but eventually re- 
turned to her country vrith her father, the Emperor 
Francis I. of Austria. A few days after Napoleon's Death of 
arrival at Elba, his faithful wife Josephine pined away, °^^^ ^"^' 
and died of a broken heart on the 29th May, murmur- 
ing the words: "Elba! Napoleon!" 



CHAPTER LXV. 



1814. 



Hundred 
Days. 
The 

Congress 
of Vienna 



181S. 



Napoleon's 
Return, 
2oth 
March. 



Ligny, 
Quatre 
Bras, 1 6th 
June, 



Louis XVIII., brother of the murdered King Louis 
XVI., was restored to the French crown, and peace was 
proclaimed. The aUied princes conducted their armies 
back across the Rhine, and assembled at Vienna, to 
discuss the state of Europe. But a whisper had been 
circulated amongst the friends of Napoleon, "Corporal 
Violet will return in the spring"; and their token was 
his favorite flower. The spring came, and with it 
actually came Buonaparte, taking advantage of a ball 
given in his honor, to make his escape, and landing at 
Frejus, March ist, whilst the Congress were pursuing 
their consultations by day and their festivities by night 
at Vienna. At the first sight of him, his old soldiers 
rushed to embrace him, and to escort him to the capital. 
Louis XVIII. in Paris, seeing no friends at hand likely 
to support him, fled to Ghent, on the 20th March. On 
the same evening the Emperor's carriage dashed through 
the streets; and by midnight, Napoleon was once more 
quietly at work in his study in the Tuileries, as if his 
past reverses had been nothing but a dream. In three 
months' time 125,000 men were ready to follow him to 
the world's end. 

The Prussians under Bliicher and the Enghsh under 
Wellington met the brilliant army of Napoleon at Ligny 
and Quatre Bras. Bliicher was wounded at Ligny; 
his horse was shot under him, and himself left on the 
ground, with his dying horse on top of him. The 
French stormed over him, without recognizing him, and 

224 



ERA OF NAPOLEON. 22 5 

he was only extricated from his perilous position later 
in the day by some of his faithful Prussian followers. 
The next day Napoleon — standing under a tree, near 
the farm of Belle- Alliance at Waterloo— gave the order ^f^^jjf^^g'^ 
for attack on WelHngton. The latter sent a message to ^^^s. 
Bliicher, asking him to assist him with two regiments. 
"Not with two regiments, but with my whole army," 
was Bliicher's reply. His physician warned him it would 
be dangerous for him to ride on account of his wounds. 
"It is all one to me, I must keep my word," rephed the 
old veteran. "Forwards, my children!" But it was 
easier said than done. The rain fell in torrents, and 
rendered the roads almost impassable, and the troops 
hesitated. "We must advance, possible or impossible. 
I have promised my friend WelHngton; you would not 
wish me to break my word." And they did advance. 
Arrived on the field of battle, they found the Enghsh — 
wearied by the long day's struggle against superior 
numbers — placed in the most critical position, but still 
gallantly holding out. Bliicher dashed in on the right, 
and helped to bring to a conclusion one of the decisive 
battles of the world. Wellington and Bliicher shook 
hands; each congratulating the other on the honor of 
the victory. Nothing could be more complete than the 
discomfiture of the routed army; but so many valuable 
lives were lost on the field of Waterloo, that Wellington 
had good reason for saying that " a victory was the most 
dreadful thing in the world, except a defeat". When 
Napoleon saw his favorite Old Guard driven back by 
the continuous fire of the English, he turned pale and 
exclaimed, "They are mixed together, it is all over!" 
and he rode away from the field in the dusk of the even- 
ing with all possible speed, whilst his carriage and 
equipments fell into the hands of the Prussians. Trav- 
elling to Paris, he sought his brother Lucien — always his 



226 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Death of 

Napoleon, 

1821. 



Benefits 
conferred 
by Napo- 
leon 



comforter in trouble. Lucien suggested some further 
active measures, but met with such discouragement 
that he declared that "the smoke of the battle had 
turned his brain". Finally, Lucien drew up a second 
resignation in favor of the Httle Duke of Reichstadt, 
wliich Napoleon signed; and then he quitted Paris, and 
hurried to Rochefort, hoping to escape to America; but 
he was captured by the watchful Enghsh and obHged to 
surrender into their hands, one hundred days after his 
landing in France. He was banished to St. Helena, 
where his health rapidly gave way, and he died on the 
5th May, 1821. His body was interred in the island; 
but in 1840 it was brought to Paris, and buried with 
magnificent funeral honors, in the Church of the In- 
vaKdes, attended by royalty, and his only surviving 
brother, Jerome Buonaparte. The young Duke of 
Reichstadt died in 1832, at the court of his grandfather 
the Emperor of Austria. 

Napoleon's divorce of Josephine was useless. Maria 
Luisa's only son, the Duke of Reichstadt, died; whilst 
Josephine's grandson, by her daughter, Hortense de 
Beauharnais, became the Emperor Louis Napoleon HI. 

With all his faults, and the bewildering confusion in 
which he placed the nations of Europe by his over- 
weening ambition, Napoleon conferred some great bene- 
fits, which are still in use in France. He not only re- 
stored religion to the country, which had long been suf- 
fering from the want of all Church services, compelled 
by the atheism of the Revolution, but he instituted the 
civil code of laws called the "Code Napoleon," estab- 
Hshed the mihtary schools, and constructed magnificent 
roads, wherever he desired passageway for his armies. 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

CHAPTER LXVI. 

The nineteenth century has run its course and has 
brought important changes in the state of continental 
affairs. Monarchical governments — the survival of the 
middle ages — have been transformed into constitutional 
monarchies. "Public opinion" is the new power, which 
has taken the place of the "Divine right of Kings," to 
which naturally follows the desire to take a certain per- 
sonal part in the administration of public affairs, and to 
secure such constitutions as should guarantee the rights 
and liberties of the people. 

The last century opened with the conquests of Napo- 1800-30. 
leon, and the strange sight of the whole of Europe con- 
vulsed and dominated by the audacity and vaulting am- 
bition of a single man. International struggles occupied 
a large place in the nineteenth century, especially during 
the earher years. Germany, at its opening, stood with- 
out a representative head (Francis 11. having resigned 
the German crown in 1806). 

After the Congress of Vienna in 181 5, the various 
sovereigns were engaged in taking possession once more 
of their dominions, and encountering more or less diffi- 
culties in doing so. During those years several of the 
princes conferred new constitutions on their subjects; 
but the rights thus granted were merely nominal, and in 
the fear of socialist ideas spreading, as they had done in 
France, the Uberty of the press was curtailed, and many 

227 



228 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

narrowing measures were taken. For instance, the 
Elector of Hesse — who had been deprived of his States, 
and then restored — pushed the idea of restoration to the 
verge of fanaticism, and issued an order that all soldiers 
should again wear their old head-dress, which had been 
discarded from its inconvenience, and that the oflicers 
promoted during his absence should be retrograded to 
their former rank. In defiance of this movement, pa- 
triotic societies were formed in Germany, in imitation 
of the Carbonari in Italy and France; and the students 
of the Universities all declared in favor of Hberal ideas. 
But the generally-accepted voice of the nation was in 
favor of a grand pohtical union, which should raise 
Germany out of its degraded position. Russian in- 
fluence was especially dreaded. The poet Kotzebue, 
an agent of Russia, was known to transmit false reports 
of the state of the country to the Czar; and his assassina- 
tion by a student of Jena named Sand, followed by that 
of the Due de Berri in France, only roused a still stronger 
spirit of repression. The German Diet took the sever- 
est measures for stamping out the growing excitement; 
radical associations were broken up, newspapers sup- 
pressed, and professors deposed from office. This 
work of destroying political Hberty, suppressing Hberal 
tendencies, and restoring the despotism of the ^'ancien 
regime" was the especial object of the Holy AlHance, 
which assumed the right of interfering in public affairs 
as the "poKce of Europe". England alone protested 
against such interference by one State in the internal 
affairs of another, and proclaimed the new principle of 
"non-intervention," which has gradually become the 
basis of contemporary poKtics. 

The great events which mark the latter half of the 
nineteenth century are: the proclamation of the third 
French Republic; the wars between Prussia and Den- 



THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 229 

mark, and Prussia and Austria, making way for the re- 
establishment of the Empire of Germany; the formation 
of the Italian monarchy; the constitution of new States 
in the Balkan Peninsula, which practically meant the 
dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire; the triumph 
of constitutional government in nearly all the European 
countries; and the development of Colonial power in 
Asia and Africa. 



AFTER WATERLOO. 

CHAPTER LXVII. 

AFTER THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON. 
Second After the Battle of Waterloo, the aUies entered Paris 

Treaty of ^ ' 

Paris, 6th in triumph for the second time; a second Treaty of Paris 

July, 1815. ^ ' -^ ' 

was entered into, and King Louis XVIII. firmly replaced 
Holy upon the throne. The Emperors of Russia and Austria 

Sept., 1815. and the King of Prussia bound themselves in a "Holy 
Alliance," promising to carry on pohtical transactions 
Congress of in the Spirit of Christianity. Later in the autumn they 
Nov., 1815. met again at the Congress of Vienna, where a treaty was 
entered into, securing the division of the various king- 
doms. A new German AlHance was formed, called the 
CoSlder- " Germanic Confederation," by which thirty-nine States ^ 
ation. agreed that each should remain independent in all mat- 

ters which concerned itself alone ; a permanent Diet or 
ParHament, consisting of plenipotentiaries of the States, 
should hold its sittings at Frankfort-am-Rhein, the rep- 
resentative of Austria presiding. The members of the 
Confederation promised never to declare war against one 
another; there was to be a confederate army, to which 
each State should contribute according to its popula- 
tion; and all disputes were to be referred to the Diet. 

^The principal were: (i) Austria, (2) Prussia, (3) Bavaria, 
(4) Saxony, (5) Hanover, (6) Wurtemberg, (7) Baden, (S) Hesse, 
(9) Darmstadt, (10) Brunswick, (11) Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
and Nassau, etc. 

230 



AFTER WATERLOO. ' 23 I 

The first Diet was held November, 181 6, the last Au- 
gust, 1866. This Confederation replaced the "Confed- 
eration of the Rhine," formed by Napoleon. 

The Congress of Vienna tried to make distinct Terms ot 
poUtical boundaries in Europe. The King of Sardinia Treaty. 
recovered Piedmont and Genoa. 

Belgium and Holland were united to form one king- 
dom. (This only lasted fifteen years; for in 1830 Bel- 
gium rose against the oppressions of Holland, and was 
declared by a National Congress an independent King- 
dom, under Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, with a 
liberal constitution.) Bavaria received back the Palati- 
nate of the Rhine.^ Austria recovered Lombardy and 
Venetia. Prussia received part of the Kingdom of Sax- 
ony, all Swedish Pomerania, and the Duchy of Posen. 
Russia kept Warsaw (Varsoviej, Finland, and the larger 
portion of Poland. Sweden received Norway, which 
had hitherto belonged to Denmark. 

After the downfall of the great "disturber of Eu- 
rope," Germany enjoyed a long time of peace, and was 
able to recover somewhat from its hardships and suffer- 
ings; but the Empire was not re-estabHshed. Since Rivalry of 
the foundation of the House of Hapsburg, Austria had Prussia, 
been the ruhng State of Germany, and had held its su- 
premacy up to the time of Maria Theresa and the war 
of the Pragmatic Sanction; but Prussia had been for 
many years steadily rising in power ; and the Napoleonic 
wars brought matters to an issue. 

The Treaty of Presburg, December 6th, 1805, greatly 
reduced the Austrian territories; and the resignation of 
the Crown of Germany by the Emperor Francis in 1806, 
when so many of the princes withdrew their allegiance 
from Austria and formed the "Confederation of the 
Rhine," put an end to all semblance of the "Holy Ro- End of the 

^ "^ Holy 

^ Formerly known as the "Lower Palatinate ". Roman 



232 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

man Empire^'. As the power of Austria declined, that 
of Prussia increased. The enterprising Prussian Kings 
had raised the kingdom to such power and importance 
that it was becoming the leading power among the Ger- 

Austria orj man States. The question which forcibly presented 
itself in 1828 was, "which of the two leading kingdoms 
should be paramount?" There was a strongly marked 
feehng growing up that Germany should cease to be a 
mere "bundle of States," but should become one united 
power. In 1828 Prussia became the centre of a com- 

ZoUverein, mercial union called the "Zollverein," or "Customs 
Union," by which the States pledged themselves not to 
levy taxes on each other for merchandise passing from 
one to the other, but only on the merchandise of out- 
side countries. 



1828 



CHAPTER LXVIII. 

From 1832 to 1848 there reigned a comparative peace JJ^jJ®"*^ 
almost all over Europe. After these sixteen years, iv., of 

Pl"llSSl£L 

although frequent wars broke out, they did not last so 1840. 
long, and were more locahzed than before. In 1840 
Frederic WilHam IV. came to the throne of Prussia with 
his romantic ideahsm, modesty, and earnest good-will 
in striving to better the condition of his country. He 
showed the devotion to duty so characteristic of his fam- 
ily, endeavoring to raise the culture of his subjects, and 
increase the happiness of his people. 

The French Revolution of 1830 had but slight effect 
on Germany; but in 1848 the third French Revolution 1848. 
broke out, upsetting Louis PhiHppe, and re-establishing 
the Republic in France. By that time Europe also was 
in a blaze. New and powerful influences were at work, 
and the revolutions in Poland, Italy, Spain, Sicily, 
Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Schleswig, and Holstein 
against their established Governments were stirred up 
by a rapidly spreading spirit of "communism". Ger- 
many was no less convulsed, and required complete re- 
construction. An insurrection took place in Berlin 
(March, 1848), when the city was declared in a state of 
siege; the Prussian soldiers were obHged to retreat be- 
fore the mob, and numbers fell victim to the struggle. 
With uncovered head the King himself stood watching 
the sad procession of bearers carrpng away the corpses. 
Then he came forward as a leader of the agitation, and 
showed himself prepared to do his best to re-organize 

233 



234 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

the political affairs of Germany. The German Na- 
tional Assembly met at Frankfort with a view of giving 
Germany a federal constitution. Archduke John of 
Austria^ was elected "Vicar of the Empire," and the 
Assembly offered the Imperial crown to the King of 
Prussia, but he dechned it. The Assembly thereupon 
broke up into parties. The Republicans, indignant at 
the want of success in re-organizing Germany, revolted, 

1849. and fresh insurrections broke out. That of Dresden 
lasted six days, and Prussian troops were called in to 
subdue it. The Assembly transferred its sittings to 
Stuttgart; and after vain attempts to estabhsh a new 
government on a better footing, they resorted again to 
the old former Diet. The movement of 1848, however, 
was not without result for Germany. It countenanced 
patriotic aims, which later on became the basis of the 
great political transformation of 1871. 

1850. Reaction was bound to follow the excesses of the 
revolutionary excitement; but the "Hberty of the 
people" became gradually estabHshed as a necessary 
fact, and various useful concessions were made by the 
sovereigns. 

1854-56. Then came the grand international struggles of the 

Crimean and Itahan wars, during which time the 

French Emperor Louis Napoleon III. was prominent 

Resigna- in European affairs. Illness compelled Frederic Wil- 

KiSg°Fred. liam IV. of Prussia to resign the reins of government 



Will. IV. 
1857. 



^ In 1848, Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, died, and was suc- 
ceeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. The Hungarians were 
struggling gallantly for independence, but — with Russian help — 
the young Emperor put down the insurrection. In 1867, a new 
constitution for Hungary was instituted, with separate ParHa- 
ments, but one sovereign, and the Emperor and Empress were 
crowned King and Queen of Hungary. The Dual Empire is, 
however, a mass of heterogeneous communities with different 
habits, customs, and languages. 



AFTER WATERLOO. 235 

into the hands of his brother WiUiam, the chivalrous, 
high-souled soldier who had served in the campaigns of 
18 13 and 181 5, and had proved his devotion to his 
brother and country by taking upon himself the odium 
which must otherwise have attacked the king, when 
opposition to a requisite change in the constitution, re- 
fused by the king, brought down the hatred of the radical 
party. Prince WiUiam had actually taken all the blame 
of this refusal on himself, and had suffered exile 
rather than allow unpopularity to touch his brother. 
In 1857 he was made regent, and crowned King 1861, 
to the unbounded joy of the army, who had always be- 
lieved in him, and who now hailed his rise to power with 
enthusiasm. (Frederic William IV. died in March, 
1888.) 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 



CHAPTER; LXIX. 

THE RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GERMAN 
EMPIRE. 

William I., The accession of King William L, the younger son of 

King of .ri/-N T- • 

Prussia, the beautiful Queen Louise, marks an important epoch 
in the history of Prussia. Since 1848 Germany had 
been longing for greater political unity. But the antag- 
onism of Austria and Prussia, and the general panic 
created by the revolution in France, had wrecked all 
attempts at re-organizing the country on a national 
footing. The coming to the throne of the soldier-king 
WilHam changed the position of Prussia; for the new 
sovereign — faithful, brave, and high-souled — was from 
the first resolved to place Prussia at the head of the 
German Confederation, and to estabhsh the govern- 
ment on a military basis. In the accompHshment of 
this work, his able minister Bismarck was his right 
hand, displaying the same constant activity and keen- 
sighted abihty as his master. The king was an enthu- 
siastic soldier, and he felt that the first imperative ne- 
cessity was to re-organize the army. With Bismarck 
behind him, he set to work, and carried through his 
reforms with a high hand, in the face of very consid- 
erable opposition. Meantime the relations between 
Austria and Prussia were so strained and unsatisfactory 
that Bismarck declared in ParHament that " the German 
problem could only be solved by blood and iron ". 

236 



^NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 237 

The all-absorbiner difi&culty called the " Schleswig- Schieswig- 

c> -^ c Holstein 

Holstein question" was made the pretext for war. The War, 1863. 
two duchies revolted against Denmark. They were 
encouraged by Prussia and opposed by Austria. For a 
considerable period they had been considered part of 
the Danish kingdom, but they preserved their national 
feehng for Germany, and their laws of administration 
and succession to the duchies differed from those of Den- 
mark. In 1863 King Frederic VII. of Denmark died, 
and the royal house was extinct in the male line. A 
convention made in London some time previously, and 
to which the Grand Powers gave their adhesion, had 
arranged that the crown should pass to Christian IX., 
a member of the collateral branch of the reigning house. 
But Schleswig and Holstein refused to recognize King 
Christian, and declared they would have Frederic of 
Augustenburg, son of another collateral branch, instead. 
The German Confederation intervened in favor of the 
duchies, and for once Austria and Prussia allied them- 
selves together against Denmark. A brief war ensued; 
the Danes were conquered, in spite of a vigorous re- 
sistance, and gave up all claim to the two duchies, upon 
which Austria took possession of Holstein, and Prussia 
of Schleswig. The other German States were none of 
them, however, contented with tliis arrangement, and 
before long war broke out between them. 



CHAPTER LXX. 

SEVEN WEEKS' WAR BETWEEN AUSTRIA AND 
PRUSSIA. 



Seven 
Weeks' 
War, 1866. 



Custozza. 



Sadowa 
Konig- 
gratz. 



The Red 
Prince. 



Italy united with Prussia and the small Northern States 
to declare war against Austria; whilst Austria had for 
alhes Hanover, Saxony, the two Hesses, Bavaria, and 
Wiirtemberg. For a time Austria was successful, and 
the Itahans were defeated at Custozza by the Archduke 
Albert; but the Prussians, armed with needle-guns — 
breech-loading rifles of new construction — invaded Bo- 
hemia, under the command of King WilHam I.; and a 
decisive battle took place at Sadowa, near Koniggratz. 
The Austrian army, under Marshal Benedek, was 
strongly posted, having the fortress of Koniggratz in 
its rear. 

The Prussians were separated into three divisions, 
the first under the Crown Prince Frederic William, the 
second under Prince Frederic Charles (the nephew of 
King William), and the third under General von 
Bittenfeld. From three different positions they ad- 
vanced upon the enemy — King WilKam, Bismarck, and 
Roon, the Minister of War, watching their movements 
in person. When the signal was given to open attack, 
only two of the Prussian divisions were on the spot. The 
first division, c ommanded by the Crown Prince, was still 
at seven hours' distance. The battle raged on all sides; 
and so close to the place where the Prussian king was 
standing that the bullets fell within a few paces, and 
Bismarck drew his attention^to them,^and begged him 

238 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 239 

to move back to a safer position. " I can't ride away," 
cried the king impatiently, "when I see my soldiers 
standing in the fire." 

The Austrians fought like lions. If the Crown Prince 
should not arrive in time all would be lost! 

At last, at ten o'clock, the prince rode up, and, im- 
mediately without a halt, rode straight to the attack, 
followed by 50,000 men. With renewed courage the 
Prussians pushed forward, and the enemy sustained a 
complete defeat. The Austrians lost 170 cannons, 11 
standards, and 40,000 men. King WilHam embraced 
his brave son on the field of battle, and fastened to his 
coat the military " Order of Merit". 

The Emperor Francis Joseph sued for peace, and Treaty of 
the terms were arranged at the Treaty of Prague, by 1866. 
which — 

I. Austria gave up to Prussia all her rights 
in Schleswig-Holstein, and abandoned her 
claim to take part in the re-organization of 
Germany. 
II. A new "North German Confederation" was North- 
formed, with Prussia at the head, and Count coSeder- 
Bismarck as the Chancellor. It was agreed ^***'°' ^^^^' 
that all the lands north of the Main should 
form this North German Confederation. 

III. Schleswig - Holstein, Hanover, the Hesse 
States, Nassau, and Frankfort - am - Main 
should belong to Prussia. 

IV. The South German States should remain 
neutral, but ally themselves with Prussia in 
case of war. 

This Confederation replaced the " Germanic Con- 
federation" of 181 5. 



CHAPTER LXXI. 

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 
1870-71. The prominent position to which Prussia had risen was 

Reason of ^ ^ 

the War. a source of bitter jealousy to the French, who longed for 
a war which should humble their old enemies. A pre- 
text was not long wanting. In the year 1868 the Span- 
iards, wearied with the bad government of their country 
under Queen Isabella II. and her favorites, Narvaez 
and Godoy, deposed her, and after many disputes at 
length offered the crown to Leopold, Prince of Hohenzol- 
lern. The French immediately interfered, declaring 
that a German king on the throne of Spain would upset 
the balance of power in Europe. England also con- 
sidered the move undesirable for the same reason. 
Neither King William of Prussia nor his relative Prince 
Leopold was anxious that he should retain the post, and 
the prince withdrew. There the matter might have 
1870. ended; but in the summer of 1870, when King WilHam 

was drinking the water at Ems, the Emperor Louis 
Napoleon HI. sent his envoy Benedetti to interview the 
king, and to insist on the following terms being brought 
forward: 

ist, That Germany should apologize for ever 

having put forward Prince Leopold; and, 

2nd, That the King of Prussia should promise 

that no German prince should ever sit upon 

the throne of Spain. 

1 This outrageous proposal was of course refused, and 

Benedetti returned to his master. 

240 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 24I 

King William, seeing that war was inevitable, started 
at once for Berlin, and called a Council, giving orders 
to have all preparations made immediately. War was 
declared by the French on the 19th July. All Germany Jg*o/"^^' 
rose as one man. Every one of the States declared for 
the King of Prussia, and heartily joined in the defence 
of their beloved " Vaterland ". 

France was not prepared for this; she had counted 
on, at least, having the southern States of Bavaria, 
Wiirtemberg, and Baden, on her side, and was greatly 
disconcerted at finding the whole of the great German 
Confederation arrayed against her. Moreover, the 
Emperor Louis Napoleon had declared war to please 
the people, and without sufficient assurance that the 
country was in a fit state to undertake it. He himself, 
though a man of personal courage, was no soldier, no 
tactician. He had occupied himself with the affairs of 
State, and had done much in giving employment to the 
working classes by beautifying Paris, little thinking how 
soon it was to be destroyed by its frenzied inhabitants; 
but the army, on which the defence of his country 
was to depend, was undisciplined, unprovisioned, and, 
above all, ungeneraled.^ Tired of the quiet want of 
interest of the last few years, the French nation — always 
ready to fight their national enemies — clamored for war. 
The war in Italy had been a mere bagatelle; they in- 
sisted that "they would march straight through Ger- 
many and enter Berlin en fete ". Regardless of prepa- 
rations, they only asked for leave to start; and war was 
accordingly declared before the army was mobiHzed. 
The French troops hurried to the frontier, but without 
supplies, and without the requisite munitions of war. 

' The Plebiscite or popular vote on the altered Constitution in 
France showed grave discontent in the army and drove the Em- 
peror to proclaim war to distract the soldiers and win popularity. 



242 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



1870 



Saar- 
briicken. 



Weissen- 
burg, 
Gaisberg, 
Worth. 



Siege of 
Metz, 14th 
Aug. 



On the other hand, only a few days after the declaration 
of war, the vast German army was in readiness, trained, 
disciphned, provisioned, with such tried generals at 
its head as the Commander-in-chief von Moltke, 
and Steinmetz of the army on the Moselle, the Red 
Prince Frederic Charles in the Rhine Palatinate, and the 
Crown Prince ("Fritz") on the northern frontier of 
Alsace. Besides the army in the field, they had three 
separate reserves of 188,000, 160,000, and 226,000 men 
placed in position, one behind the other. Moreover, 
the whole plan of the forthcoming campaign had been 
mapped out beforehand by the prudent forethought of 
the king, Bismarck, and von Moltke. The latter war- 
rior was a veteran of seventy years, yet with the un- 
daunted courage of a youth, who had stored up all his 
experience of miHtary tactics for such an emergency as 
the present, and was ready with everything down to the 
minutest detail. His principle was to attack on three 
sides at once, and then concentrate in the middle. 
What chance could there be for unfortunate France in 
such an unequal contest ? 

The French Emperor, accompanied by his son, the 
Prince Imperial, a handsome boy of fourteen, came to 
Metz to direct the campaign. At the opening engage- 
ment at Saarbriicken the Prussians could not withstand 
the fiery onslaught of 40,000 French, and retired, but in 
good order. The French were delighted, thinking the 
business was as good as ended. But the Crown Prince 
drove the French out of the fortress of Weissenburg, and 
took Gaisberg ; he routed the enemy again at Worth and 
opened up the passes of the Vosges Mountains. This 
was their first important victory. Then after various 
smaller engagements, the Prussians, always steadily 
advancing, concentrated round Metz, the centre of the 
French army. Bazaine held the city in the absence of 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 243 

the Emperor, who had hurried to Paris to quell an agi- 
tation there. Determined to defeat the enemy at all 
hazards, Bazaine made three sorties: one at Courcelles; CourceUes, 

' ' Mars-la- 

he was met by Steinmetz and forced to retire into Metz; Jour, 

1 1 tT^t 1 rr^ 1 Gravelotte, 

the other at Mars-la-Tour, where the Red Prince with- 27th Oct. 
stood him for twelve hours, and forced him back to the 
city; and once more at Gravelotte he was defeated by 
King WilHam himself. At length he found himself 
shut up in Metz, with Germans surrounding him on all 
sides; this lasted for ten weeks, when hunger and mis- 
ery compelled him to open the gates, and 173,000 men 
and 50 ofi&cers fell into the hands of the Prussians as 
prisoners. 

Meantime the march of the German army to Paris March to 

Paris 

began in earnest; but on the way — hearing that a large 
force under Marshal MacMahon and the Emperor of 
the French was coming to the rehef of Bazaine — the 
Germans turned towards Beaumont, and were success- Beaumont, 
ful in the battle of the 30th August. Another battle 
was fought at Sedan, on the ist September, where the sedan, 
French were hemmed in on all sides, with 500 cannons ^^* ^®^*' 
surrounding them, and found it impossible to defend 
themselves against the enemy. From four o'clock in the 
morning till five in the evening the battle raged; and 
then the Emperor wrote to King WilHam of Prussia: 
" As I have not had the satisfaction of dying at the head 
of my troops, I hand over my sword to your Majesty ". 
Next day Napoleon left Sedan to meet the German 2nd Sept. 
Chancellor at the house of a poor woman at Donch^ry, 
and afterwards King WilHam at the Httle chateau of 
Bellevue near Frenois. The whole French army of 
83,000 men were deHvered up as prisoners. Louis 
Napoleon III. was sent to the castle of Wilhelmshohe ; 
but when the war was over, he was aUowed to retire to 
England, where he died in 1873. The astonishing 



244 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

rapidity of this campaign will be realized when we re- 
member that the first movement of the German army- 
was made on 4th August, and that on 2nd September 
the French Emperor was a prisoner, and his army in 
the hands of his enemies. 

A revolution broke out in Paris on the news of Louis 
Napoleon's surrender, and a RepubHc was proclaimed, 
with a "Government of National Defence" at its head. 

Panl°* ^^ ^^^ 5^^ September the German army entered 

Rheims, and on the 15th they reached Paris. They 
surrounded the city in a complete circle, so that no pro- 
visions could be got into it. The King of Prussia took 
up his position at Versailles. Armies were formed in 
different parts of France to try to stem the current which 
threatened to overwhelm France; but all was in vain. 
One division of the army of the Loire, under General 
Aurelle de Palladines, was defeated by the Red Prince 
at Orleans; the other, under Chanzy, also failed against 
the Red Prince. The army of the North, under Faid- 
herbe, was repulsed in confusion by General Manteuffel 
at Amiens, and finally scattered at St. Quentin; and 
at Belfort, General von Werder drove the army of 
Bourbaki completely out of France, and they took refuge 
in Switzerland. 

Meantime the siege of Paris continued from 19th 

1871. September, 1870, to 28th January, 1871. Then the 

great city capitulated, and on ist March the Prussians 
entered Paris as victors. Strasburg, Toul, Verdun, 
Breifach, Pfalzburg, and Belfort opened their gates, 
and the war was at an end. 

Peace of Peace was signed at Frankfort-am-Main. France 

Frankfort, ° ' 

loth May, had to give up Alsace and Lorraine, and to pay five 
milhards of francs as indemnity (;£ 2 00, 000, 000). Out 
of forty-nine battles, not one was gained by the French. 
Twenty fortresses were taken from them; 400,000 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 245 

French soldiers were taken prisoners to Germany; 
7000 cannon and 80,000 muskets fell into the hands of 
the Prussians. It was truly a war without parallel. 
The sad cry of the unfortunate French soldiers — 
" Trahis ! Trahis ! " (" Betrayed ! Betrayed 1 ")— gives 
the clue to their utter failure. They had been led to the 
war hke sheep without any efficient guides, or any head 
to suggest a plan of strategy. Germany was the gainer 
in every sense by her victories. At last the many states 
were united in a firm alHance, and after sixty years 
without an Emperor, they determined to re-establish 
the German Empire on a new and consolidated basis; 
and even whilst guarding the gates of Paris, they called 
on the King of Prussia to accept the imperial crown. 
On i8th January, 187 1, "Kaiser Wilhelm" was crowned Coronation 
at Versailles amidst the rejoicings of his army. On his Emperor 
return to BerHn, he was received vidth indescribable 1871. 
enthusiasm. They were not the fitful acclamations of 
an easily led crowd, but the true rejoicings of a people 
that had learnt to truly love and trust in their ruler, 
whose wise, firm rule gave Germany a term of peace for 
the rest of his reign. The deepest grief filled all hearts 
when he was called to his rest on 9th March, 1888. His x888. 
earnest goodness, kindliness, firmness, modesty, and, 
above all, his humble reverence for holy things, were 
very striking. The energy of his character was shown 
even on his deathbed, when, after frequent repetitions 
of the touching cry for his beloved son — "Fritz! lieber 
Fritz!" — his last words to his daughter, the Arch- 
duchess of Baden, were: "I have no time to be tired," 
and he fell asleep in death. 



CHAPTER LXXII. 



UNIFIED GERMANY. 



King 

William of 
Prussia is 
asked to 
become 
Emperor. 



The declaration of the great Chancellor that German 
unity could be accomplished only by "blood and iron" 
had its fulfilment, for it was through the Franco- 
Prussian War that national unity was achieved. Men 
of dififerent races and states forgot their rivalry and 
their animosities when they marched shoulder to shoulder 
for the defence of Germany. In warring against a 
common foe, all sectional prejudices were forgotten 
and hearts were knit together in a common loyalty to the 
Fatherland. France forced war upon Germany and 
ignorantly helped her to achieve unity. 

After the Battle of Sedan, King WilHam of Prussia 
took up his quarters at Versailles, and ambassadors 
came to him from the Southern States and Duchies to 
agree upon some form of union. On November 30, 
1870, King Ludwig of Bavaria addressed an open letter 
to the heads of the different governments asking them 
to make the King of Prussia the head of united Ger- 
many, with the title of German Emperor. When 
favorable replies were received from all the states, 
Prince Luitpold of Bavaria, as representative of the 
most important of the Southern States, tendered the 
imperial crown to King William, on December 3, 1871. 
In an open letter to the German princes and potentates, 
King Wilham announced that he was willing to accept 
the crown, not with a desire for military conquest but 

246 







'^ .-..'■■'"Scarmola 

.~\^ V%Croatia | 

\^ " rr:> Bosnia » 




NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 24/ 

"to constitute an empire of peace and prosperity in 
which the people of Germany might find and enjoy 
that for which they had sought and struggled". 

After prolonged and heated discussions, treaties of J^^^s?at^s 
union were finally signed, by which the Southern States 
of Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darm- 
stadt were united with the North German Confederation 
and all were welded together under the name of the 
German Empire. The fusion of the Northern and 
Southern States into one imperial government gave 
Germany a place among the leading powers of Europe 
and made possible her later material progress and 
development as a nation. By a proclamation of the 
Reichsrath, or general Council of the nation, the new 
Empire began its existence on January i, 1871, but the 
papal party of Bavaria still opposed the union, and 
the coronation of the Emperor did not occur till Jan- 
uary 18. 

Fate, with cruel irony, decreed that the new German Coronation 

-^ . , of Emperor 

Empire should be proclaimed in the throne room, or Wiiiiam i. 
"Hall of Mirrors," of the favorite palace of Louis XIV. 
at Versailles, where so many plans had been made by 
Louis XIV. and by Napoleon to humble Germany and > 
to crush out her national life. Here occurred one of 
the most imposing and most momentous ceremonials 
of the century, the coronation of Emperor William I. 
of Germany, on January 18, 1871, the one hundred 
and seventieth birthday of the Prussian Kingdom. 
An altar had been erected in the great mirrored hall, 
and rehgious services were conducted by Court-preacher 
Rogge. King WilHam sat in front of the congregation 
with the Crown Prince, Bismarck, Von Moltke, Roon, 
and other officers near him, and a company of flag- 
bearers with the ensigns tattered and blackened in war, 
mute witnesses of the victory over the French. The 



248 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



The first 
Imperial 
Diet. 



Constitu- 
tion 
adopted. 



service began with an anthem by a military choir, 
followed by a prayer, a sermon, and the oft-sung choral 
"Nun danket Alle Gott^\ At the close of the service, 
King WiUiam ascended the dais and, in a brief address, 
accepted the crown for himself and his successors. 
The proclamation of the Emperor to the German 
people was read by Bismarck, and the Grand Duke 
of Baden, William's son-in-law, going quietly to the 
front of the assembly, called out, " Long hve his Imperial 
Majesty, the Emperor WilUam!" Then the palace of 
the Kings of France rang with huzzas to the Emperor 
of the new Germany. 

The new Diet met at Berlin on March 21, in the 
historic White Hall of the old palace, and was opened 
by the Emperor with a speech from the throne, in which 
he promised his subjects a reign of peace, with no 
interference in the affairs of other nations. 

The constitution adopted at the close of the war with 
Austria was modified to meet the needs of the new 
Empire and went into effect April 16, 1871. The legis- 
lative power was vested in the Bundesrath (Federal 
Council), composed of representative princes, appointed 
by the state governments; and a Reichstag (Imperial 
Diet), consisting of deputies elected by the people. 
The King of Prussia was to be Emperor, the title and 
Empire being hereditary. There was to be one army, 
one navy, one system of weights and measures, one 
custom-house frontier, uniform coinage and postal laws, 
and one diplomatic system. The constitution of 1871 
was similar in many respects to that of the Confedera- 
tion, but it provided that imperial laws should take 
precedence of the laws of the separate states. The 
Confederation had been a league of independent states, 
each maintaining its right of sovereignty in its own 
affairs. The new constitution diminished the power 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 249 

of the states by vesting the executive authority in the 
Emperor and his Ministry. 

As one historian remarks, the history of Germany Bismarck's 
for the foUovi^ing twenty years is practically the biogra- 
phy of Bismarck, since his name is indissolubly linked 
with all state affairs of this period. During the years 
after the Franco-Prussian War, there was no busier 
man in all Europe than Bismarck. He held three 
distinct offices, and as chancellor of the German Em- 
pire, premier of Prussia's cabinet, and Prussian sec- 
retary of foreign affairs, he was the hardest worker of 
the age. About a thousand telegrams and letters 
were received by him every day. The first thing that 
he and Emperor William did for the Empire was to in- 
crease the army, not for the sake of conquest but for 
protection. Then they proceeded to decide upon a 
uniform system of weights and measures, uniform mone- 
tary values and postal regulations. During the dis- 
cussion of these measures in the Reichstag, the four great 
political parties took their stand: the Conservatives, 
the National-Liberals, the Clericals or Ultramontanes, 
forming the Centre, and the Social-Democrats. 

The great event in continental affairs of 1872 was An in- 
the meeting at Berlin of the three Emperors of Russia, League. 
Austria, and Germany, and their chancellors, — an 
event brought about by Bismarck's diplomacy. Alex- 
ander II., Francis Joseph, and William I. entered into 
an informal alliance or league of peace. There were 
no written obligations, but only a friendly understand- 
ing. This alliance convinced the other European 
nations that the three powerful military governments 
intended to maintain peace with each other. This 
informal league was replaced, several years later, by 
the Triple Alliance. 

The French territory of Alsace-Lorraine, which had Aisace- 

'' ' Lorraine. 



2 50 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

been annexed to Germany, was inhabited by people 

who were German by birth but French in feeUng, and 

rather than submit to German rule, more than forty 

thousand of them emigrated to France. Germany 

granted them their choice in the matter, but all who 

remained in the territory became German subjects on 

September 30, 1872. How to govern the territory 

and preserve amicable relations with its people has been 

a problem for Germany up to the present time. 

The The event of the reiorn of Emperor William I. which 

Kultur- . . ^ f • ■, 

kampf. was of greatest importance to humanity at large was 

the Kulturkampf (civiUzation-battle), a conflict be- 
tween Church and State, Bismarck being pitted 
against the Ultramontane or papal party. Frederic 
William IV., through the influence of his wife, Eliza- 
beth, a bigoted Romanist, had made such concessions 
to the Roman Catholics of Prussia that they were 
ready to ride rough-shod over the laws of the land. 
Bismarck felt himself called upon to put down their 
arrogant pretensions. The struggle began in 1871, 
when the doctrine of papal infalhbility was forced upon 
German ecclesiastics. The Archbishop of Cologne 
threatened to dismiss some of the theological professors 
at Bonn if they did not recognize the dogma, and a 
teacher at Braunsberg was excommunicated because 
he refused to teach the doctrine. This brought matters 
to a crisis, and Bismarck demanded that the Catholic 
section of the Prussian Ministry of Public Worship 
be abolished. In January, 1872, Dr. Alfred Falk was 
appointed Minister of Education and Worship, and a 
new school law, called the Falk Law, was passed, 
placing the educational system under state control. 
This roused the ire of Pius IX. and he refused to recog- 
nize Germany's ambassador, Prince Hohenlohe. In a 
debate in the Reichstag upon the relations with the 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 25 I 

Vatican, Bismarck uttered the memorable words: "To 
Canossa we shall not go".^ The bishops united in a 
declaration against the Chancellor and he retaUated 
by expelling the Jesuits from the realm. In May, 
1872, the celebrated May Laws were passed, which 
restricted in every possible way the power of the Romish 
Church, authorizing the State to control theological 
seminaries, to examine candidates for the priesthood, 
to approve or reject ecclesiastical appointments, and 
to regulate all ecclesiastical discipline. These laws 
were enforced by fine, imprisonment, and exile. A 
Civil Marriage Law soon followed, and a Cloister Law, 
expelling from Prussia all religious orders. It was 
while this struggle was at its height that an attempt 
upon Bismarck's life was made by a fanatical youth, 
KuUmann. Some critics feel that Bismarck appears 
in his worst light during this struggle and he is called 
''intolerant as the Inquisition". But the great Chan- 
cellor looked upon the State as a political institution. 
It was not a question with him whether Protestants 
or Catholics should rule, but whether the authority 
of the Emperor should be superior to that of the Pope. 
To yield to the supremacy of the Pope meant destruc- 
tion of the national life. Bismarck's mistake was 
in method rather than in principle. He wisely saw, 
as the conflict waxed hotter, that he must adopt less 
rigorous measures. Moreover, the revenues of the 
Empire had proved insufficient, and in order to pass 
his protective tariff bill, the Chancellor had to have 
the support of the papal party. With the accession 
of Leo XIII. , in 1878, concessions were made on both 
sides. A compromise was effected, and in 1882 the 

^ These words are inscribed upon a monument to Bismarck in 
the yard of the old castle at Harzburg, the favorite residence of 
Emperor Henry IV. 



252 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

May Laws were revised and restrictions upon the clergy 
removed. In May, 1887, all laws against the Roman 
Catholic Church which had been passed since 1871 
were repealed. In the long conflict with the papal 
party, Bismarck's health began to give way, and several 
times he expressed a wish to resign the chancellorship, 
but the Emperor would not consent. 

Socialism. In 1 8 78 two attempts were made to assassinate 
Emperor William. On May 17, as he was driving on 
Unter den Linden, a socialist fanatic, Hodel, fired 
several shots at him, inflicting only shght injuries. 
About two weeks later, another socialist, Dr. Karl 
Nobiling, fired upon the Emperor, wounding him 
severely. Hodel was tried and executed; Nobiling 
committed suicide. Crown Prince Frederic became 
regent during his father's convalescence, and, by his 
gracious bearing, bound the hearts of the people to 
him. These attempted assassinations turned the at- 
tention of the government to the growing evil of social- 
ism. There were at that time sixty thousand socialists 
in Berlin and nearly half a million in the Empire. At 
the demand of Bismarck, stringent laws against social- 
ism were passed, aiming to suppress their meetings 
and their newspapers. Such rigorous measures only 
provoked greater antagonism, and an attempt was 
afterwards made to remove the causes of discontent. 
In 1 88 1, the message of the Emperor to Parhament 
advocated measures for bettering the condition of the 
poor, which resulted later in compulsory state insur- 
ance. Emperor William's great popularity began with 
this message, which showed his paternal feeling for 
his subjects, and his earnest desire to contribute to 
their welfare. 

BerUn After the Turko-Russian War, Russia, Turkey, 

France, and England were involved in complications. 



Congress. 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 253 

and Bismarck offered his services as an " honest broker," 
inviting the five great powers and Turke}^ to a con- 
ference at Berlin, which was held in Bismarck's palace, 
from June 13 to July 13, 1878. This Congress was 
of universal interest and of great importance in world 
history, because it showed the position and character of 
the new Empire of Germany, and marked the dismem- 
berment of the Ottoman Empire. 

In this conference, Bismarck favored Austria more The Triple 
than Russia and this led to a breach of the informal 
alliance of 1872. Russia, indignant at what she deemed 
unfair treatment, withdrew her friendship from Ger- 
many, although Emperor WiUiam wanted to maintain 
friendly relations with her. Fearing a coalition of 
Russia with France, the two Emperors of Germany 
and Austria-Hungary formed, in 1879, ^^ "alliance of 
peace and mutual defence," which was joined by Italy 
several years later, forming what is known as the Triple 
Alliance or Dreihimd. This alliance was regarded 
as a master stroke of Bismarck's diplomacy, for the 
preservation of Germany's national life has been largely 
due to its existence. The Alliance has been renewed 
three times, but now threatens dissolution. 

Germany now began to imitate other European German 

. 1 T ,1 T- Coloniza- 

powers m acquiring possessions beyond the sea. In- tion. 
ternational rivalry, the desire to add to her material 
prosperity, and the great tide of emigration to other 
countries prompted her to claim her share of ownerless 
territory. Bismarck was at first opposed to colonial 
expansion, and the colonial policy advocated by him 
in 1884 was that ''the Imperial flag would not precede 
colonization but follow it". Togoland and Cameroons 
in West Africa were acquired in 1884. The first la,ws 
relating to the administration of colonies were passed 
in 1886. 



2 54 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Bismarck's 

Famous 

Speeches. 



Emperor 
"William's 
Ninetieth 
Birthday. 



Emperor 
Frederic 
III., 



One of Bismarck's most powerful speeches in the 
Reichstag was in the debate over the Septennat in 1885, 
a bill asking for an appropriation to maintain for seven 
years an additional force of forty-five thousand men 
on the western border, and to strengthen the fortresses. 
The whole world looked on and listened to the de- 
bate, because the passing of the bill seemed to imply 
war. Perhaps the greatest speech of Bismarck's life 
was that on the Landsturm Law on February 6, 1888. 
It "thrilled the heart of Europe," and was a powerful 
plea for an additional tax to add half a million of 
men to the regular army. This speech is interesting 
as being virtually a summary of Bismarck's political 
career. 

On March 22, 1887, Emperor William's ninetieth 
birthday was celebrated with the greatest enthusiasm. 
The German princes offered congratulations in person 
or through representatives, and all the powers of Eu- 
rope, even France, sent birthday greetings. No sover- 
eign was ever more highly honored and Berlin had 
never witnessed such an ovation. His career was 
great and glorious and he went down to his grave 
"full of honors," and feeUng that the mission of his 
life had been fulfilled, — the unifying of the German 
nation. 

The death of Emperor William I., March 9, 1888, 
plunged the nation into deepest mourning, and the 
shadow was heavier because of the double sorrow that 
had darkened the national life. An incurable disease 
had fastened itself upon Crown Prince Frederic before 
the Emperor's death, and the people knew that he 
upon whom they had centred their hopes and their 
affections would soon be taken from them. Frederic 
III. assumed the imperial office on March 10, 1888, 
but there was no coronation. As Crown Prince he had 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 255 

been idolized by the people and had been saluted by 
North and South alike as "Unser Fritz". His mag- 
netic manner, his unselfish devotion to his people, his 
tender sympathy for old and young, his spotless purity 
of soul, and his aspirations after everything great and 
noble, together with his military triumphs as soldier- 
prince, made him an ideal hero. His subHme resig- 
nation under the awful tragedy of his life and his calm 
and patient endurance of suffering endeared him still 
more to the people. When the news of his father's 
death reached San Remo, where Frederic had been 
taken for the winter, he started at once upon the home- 
ward journey to assume his new duties. His devoted 
wife was his support and shared all his sorrows and 
responsibilities. "Empress Frederic," as she was 
called in Berlin, was the oldest daughter of Queen 
Victoria and a woman of rare intellect and strength of 
character. Frederic's brief reign of ninety-nine days 
is not remembered for public acts. The time was too 
short for the accomplishment of his carefully elabo- 
rated plans for promoting the public weal, but his proc- 
lamation to the people and the rescript addressed to 
the Imperial Chancellor show what his work as Ger- 
many's sovereign might have been. Bismarck said: 
"Had he lived longer as German Emperor, he would 
have astonished the world with his energy and per- 
sonal action in the government ". He was an en- 
thusiastic lover of hterature and art, and though some 
critics say that he was too much of an ideahst to have 
made a successful ruler, there is no doubt that under 
his sway Germany would have reached her golden age 
of culture. 

It is remarkable that those who figured so largely 
in the formation of the Empire were men of advanced 
years. Emperor William was seventy-four years of 



256 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

age when the imperial crown was placed upon his 
brow. Bismarck held the reins of power from his 
fifty-ninth till his seventy-ninth year, while Von Moltke 
had seen seventy summers when he was made Field 
Marshal of the German Empire. It was a day when 
age and experience were revered by the younger gen- 
eration. 
th^^Em ke Various opinions are held by historians and biog- 
raphers as to who should be called the maker of the 
German Empire of to-day. Dr. John Lord calls Bis- 
marck the "builder of the German Empire," and the 
Chancellor's biographers are united in ascribing honor 
to him as the one who accomplished the union. One 
authority says: "Without Bismarck there would have 
been no united Germany and no Emperor ". On the 
other hand, Professor von Treitschke of the University 
of Berlin calls William I. "the man who united Ger- 
many," and Sidney Whitman says: "Although without 
a 'Bismarck the Germany of to-day might have been, 
without the late Emperor (William I.) it could not 
have been." Admirers of Frederic III., including 
his own son, the present Emperor, claim for him the 
honor of unifying Germany. Still others tell us that 
German unity could not have been accomplished 
without the Franco-Prussian War, and that the war 
could not have been victorious without Von Moltke 
and Roon. Probably the truth of the matter is that 
there was no leading role in the drama, but the 
plaudits of the multitude should be distributed, giving 
a fair share of praise to William I. the wise ruler, Bis- 
marck the sagacious statesman, Von Moltke "the 
greatest general and strategist since Napoleon," and 
to Frederic, who won the crowning victory at Sedan 
and whose liberal policy in affairs of state Bismarck 
is supposed to have followed. Germany may point 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 25/ 

with pride to all of them. They were men of intellect 
and of indomitable will, and God-fearing men whose 
faith in the God of nations helped them to lay deep 
and broad the foundations of the Empire. 



CHAPTER LXXIII. 
REIGN OF WILLIAM II. 
Accession The German people had never reposed confidence in 

of Emperor . . . . 

Wiuiamii. Crown Prmce William and he was not a favorite with 
them. His accession to the throne on June 15, 1888, 
at the age of twenty-nine, was not hailed with joyous 
acclamation. His youth, impetuosity, and arrogant 
egotism, led the people to view him with many mis- 
givings. He began his reign with a pompous display 
of military power and his proclamation was addressed 
to the army and not to the people. He believes most 
impUcitly in his "divine right" to rule, and his belief 
in the old idea of the "Lord's anointed" naturally has 
led to ostentatious display and a revival of the pag- 
eantry of past ages. The opening of the first Imperial 
Diet of his reign was a scene of almost unparalleled 
splendor. Frederic the Great is his ideal monarch, 
and in his martial spirit, his versatihty, and his love 
of arbitrary power, he resembles his illustrious ancestor. 
His mihtary training was unusually thorough, and it 
is said that his knowledge of mihtary history is mar- 
vellous. He sat at the feet of Moltke and always had 
the highest veneration for the grand old general. In 
affairs of state he received valuable schooling from his 
grandfather and from Bismarck. Seldom does a pro- 
spective ruler have such teachers to fit him for his career. 
The first year of his reign was largely spent in a 
round of visits to European courts. The sovereigns of 

258 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 259 

Russia, Denmark^ Austria, and Italy were visited, and 
while in Rome he had an interview with Pope Leo 
at the Vatican. 

The first important pubhc event of the reign of Wil- ^^^^J^^ 
liam II. was the ceremony marking the end of the League. 
Hanseatic League. Liibeck had yielded her rights 
twenty-two years before, and Hamburg and Bremen 
were at last forced to realize that the welfare of the 
many demanded a sacrifice of individual ambition. 
They entered the Customs Union on October 18, 1888, 
thereby surrendering their historical rights as free 
ports. A great celebration attended the event, and 
Emperor William himself honored the ceremony with 
his presence. The Hanseatic League, which for cen- 
turies had carried its head so proudly, became a thing 
of the past. The only trace of the historical prestige 
of the three free cities is in their being ranked with 
the hereditary princes in the Bundesrath. 

In his Crown Prince days, William II. had pro- ^H^^*"^® 
fessed warmest friendship for Bismarck, and in a mes- Bismarck, 
sage to him, on New Year's Day, 1889, he had ex- 
pressed the hope that they might long be permitted 
to work together for the welfare and greatness of the 
Fatherland. But the arbitrary Chancellor who had 
guided state affairs for so many years, at his own will, 
could not be dominated by the young Emperor, who 
possessed most decidedly a will of his own and who felt 
competent to be his own Chancellor. Disagreement 
arose upon the method of dealing with socialism. Bis- 
marck wished to have rigorous anti-socialist laws passed, 
while the Emperor favored a milder policy. Minis- 
terial responsibihty was also a bone of contention. 
By the Prussian constitution, the Ministers were made 
responsible to the Crown and not to the Chancellor, as 
Bismarck desired. Though it was known that dif- 



26o HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

ferences existed between the Emperor and the Chan- 
cellor, the world was electrij&ed when the news was 
divulged that Bismarck had been asked to resign his 
three offices. The resignation was asked for on March 
17, 1890, but as befitted a statesman in Bismarck's high 
position, he prepared a suitable memorial which reached 
the Emperor on March 20. An imperial message was 
sent to the Chancellor, formally accepting his resigna- 
tion and eulogizing his work for Germany. General 
von Caprivi was appointed Chancellor. Bismarck's 
retirement from office did not mean political death for 
him. Delegations of reporters thronged his home at 
Friedrichsruh ; his criticisms of the administration 
were given to the press, and he continued to influence 
public opinion. 
Reconciiia- Several efforts were made to effect a reconciliation, 

tion. ^ _ ' 

with no response on Bismarck's part. In January, 
1894, Bismarck had a severe illness, and the Emperor 
sent his wishes for a safe recovery, accompanying his 
message with a bottle of rare old Hock. The wishes 
and the wine warmed the Chancellor's heart and he 
accepted graciously the Emperor's kindness. He was 
then invited to visit the Emperor, and his return to 
Berlin was a genuine triumph, the court and the people 
paying him homage. He did not, however, enter 
public life again, but lived in retirement at Friedrichs- 
ruh till his death, in 1898. 

Many far-reaching events have occurred since 1890 
which command the attention of the student of Ger- 
many's history. 
Anglo- The boundaries of the "spheres of influence" in 

AgrSment. Africa were sharply defined by the Anglo- German 
Convention, which met at BerUn, on July i, 1890. An 
agreement was signed by which Germany withdrew 
some of her claims, and, in return for her territorial 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 26 1 

concessions, England ceded to her the Island of Helgo- 
land, a rocky fortress in the North Sea, which would 
be serviceable as an outpost in military operations, 
protecting the northern coast of Germany. 

Germany's model insurance system is the admiration Legislation. 
of the world. No country has ever devised a plan for the 
care of the sick and the disabled that is more per- 
fectly organized or more practical in its workings. The 
Old Age and Infirmity Assurance Bill was passed in 
1889 and went into effect January i, 1891. This was 
the third of the bills which form the insurance system 
foreshadowed in the address of William I. to the Reichs- 
tag in 1 88 1. The Act of Insurance against sickness was 
passed in 1883. Wage-earners pay one and a half to 
two per cent, of their wages as a premium and are 
guaranteed medical care and half wages during illness. 
Employers pay one-third, the State pays another third? 
and the workingman's payments constitute the other 
third. Compulsory Insurance' against Accident was 
legalized in 1884. In case of complete disablement 
by accident, the wage-earner draws two-thirds of his 
wages, and in case of death by accident, provision is 
made for his family. Wage-earners receiving less than 
five hundred dollars a year in wages are required to 
provide for their old age. The Government acts as 
the insurance company, and the premiums are fixed 
in proportion to the salary, one-half of the premium 
being paid by the employer except in special contracts. 
At seventy years of age, or when so disabled that a 
living cannot be earned, the insured draws four per 
cent., indefinitely, on the amount to his credit on the 
books. This insurance system has done more to coun- 
teract the discontent of socialism than all the anti- 
socialist laws ever passed by Germany. 

William II. has always endorsed heartily all public 



262 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



The 

Germans 
in China, 



^.eKaiser improvements and has favored the great canal system, 
Canal. the construction of waterways to connect the large rivers, 
the Rhine, the Weser, and the Elbe. An immense 
fleet of warships, representing the navy of nearly every 
nation, assembled in the North Sea to witness the 
opening of the North Sea and Baltic Canal on June 
21, 1895. It is called the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and 
connects the ports of Kiel and Wilhelmshaven. The 
Emperor on his yacht, the Hohenzollern, led the pro- 
cession through the canal to Kiel, where he gave a 
grand banquet on shipboard. 

The desire for expansion has moulded Germany's 
policy in reference to the far East, and the seizure of 
Kiao-chau marked the beginning of her Pacific pos- 
sessions. In 1897, two German Catholic missionaries 
were murdered by the Chinese, and as the Chinese 
Government did not respond immediately to the Em- 
peror's demand for reparation, a naval force was sent 
in January, 1898, to seize the port of Kiao-chau in 
Shantung, one of the richest provinces in China. Prince 
Henry led the squadron, and at its embarkation there 
was an imposing ceremony with a dramatic address 
by the Emperor, counselling Prince Henry to use the 
"mailed fist". After the seizure of the port, the Chinese 
granted to Germany a ninety-nine years' lease of the 
Bay of Kiao-chau with a strip of adjoining territory. 
A dock and a coaling-station were speedily constructed, 
and the common opinion is that the German Govern- 
ment, feeling the need of a coaling-station in Eastern 
waters, and wishing to establish a "sphere of influence," 
made the murder of the missionaries a pretext for 
seizing Kiao-chau. Further complications with China 
arose in 1900, when the Boxer movement was at its 
height. The German Minister, Baron von Ketteler, 
was murdered by native troops in the streets of Pekin. 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 263 

A military expedition of twenty-three thousand men 
was sent to China, and Count Waldersee was put in 
command of the aUied forces at Pekin. Before the 
German troops departed, the Emperor delivered one 
of his most impassioned speeches, urging his soldiers 
to give no quarter, but to make the name of German 
a terror in China, as that of Attila had been to men of 
old. Prince Chun, brother of the Chinese Emperor, was 
sent to Berlin in September, 1901, to convey a letter 
expressing Emperor Kwang Su's deepest regret for the 
assassination of Baron von Ketteler. An imperial 
edict had announced that a monument would be erected 
on the site of the murder, with an inscription in Latin, 
German, and Chinese, expressing the Chinese Em- 
peror's regret for the deed, 

Germany's position in the Far East was strengthened 
in 1899 t)y acquiring from Spain the remnant of her Colonial 
colonies in the Pacific, the Carolines, the Ladrones, 
and the Pelew Islands. During the same year, the 
Anglo-German Convention divided the Samoan Islands 
among the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, 
giving to Germany the largest portion. 

During the Fall of 1902, Germany's attention was 
absorbed by the Venezuelan imbroglio. German cit- Relations 
izens in Venezuela, and those who have investments powers. ^^ 
there, have suffered loss of property in the civil wars 
that have distracted that South American republic in 
the past three years. Germany has claims against 
Venezuela for these losses, for sums due to German 
merchants, and for unpaid interest on the loan of 1896. 
Great Britain, which also had unsettled claims, joined 
Germany in coercive measures, and arranged a joint 
blockade in the harbor of La Guayra. On December 
9, 1902, they seized four Venezuelan vessels and sunk 
three of them. The Powers called on President Roose- 



264 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

velt to arbitrate in the matter, but by his advice the 
dispute was referred to The Hague Tribunal, which 
was estabhshed for the arbitration of just such troubles. 
The blockade was raised on February 15, 1903. 

Pan- Germanic ideas have been freely discussed by 
the European press. Some writers think that, under 
cover of protecting her subjects in South America, 
Germany is planning to carve a state out of Brazilian 
territory, but she firmly disavows any such intention. 
Her dream, however, is to be "dictator of the world's 
civilization," and her ambition is larger than her territory. 
Some of her shrewdest and most far-sighted statesmen 
predict that she will in time absorb Denmark, Holland, 
and Belgium. 

While socialism is a growing evil and menaces 
Germany's Germany's peace, other causes of discontent are being 
removed. Germany has recognized the fact that if 
she is to be in the vanguard of civilization, she must 
emancipate her women. Under the leadership of such 
able women as Helene Lange, Anita Augspurg, and 
Lily Braun, the "feminist movement" has made signal 
progress. Women have been admitted as hearers in 
the great universities and woman's sphere has been 
widened so that she is no longer a mere "Hausfrau". 

Germany believes in and provides for a universal 
education. She is a progressive nation and her prog- 
ress means not the aggrandizement of the few but the 
elevation of the entire nation. | She emphasizes human 
brotherhood and, more than any other monarchy of 
to-day, believes in equality. Her industries and com- 
merce have developed rapidly and steadily. Every na- 
tion recognizes her military supremacy, and the Naval 
Bill of 1900 will give her second rank among the navies 
of the world. In natural resources and financial power 
she is inferior to the United States and Great Britain, 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 265 

and her geographical position is a disadvantage, but 
by that wonderful persistence and perseverance which 
is so characteristic of her people, she has overcome 
all obstacles and ranks to-day among the great world- 
powers. 

Germany is a progressive nation and has a pro- Summary 

j; r^. ,1,11 1 of Reign of 

gressive Emperor. The world looked on askance wiiiiam 11. 
when young Wilham II. took the reins of power; but 
no longer do people feel that European peace is im- 
perilled. Although the army has always been the 
chief object of the Emperor's solicitude, he is not bel- 
ligerent; his desire is only to make Germany a for- 
midable foe. He has introduced many army re- 
forms, adopting smokeless powder and all improved 
weapons. The navy, too, has gained much in strength 
and efficiency during his reign. He has encouraged 
science and art, has built churches, and sought by 
every means to develop and strengthen the nation. 
We may criticise his vanity and egotism, but we cannot 
deny the fact that he is a gifted man and is using his 
gifts, for the good of Germany. Some excuse is to be 
made for the constant glorification of himself and 
the emphasis of his ^'divine right," if we consider that 
his aim is to strengthen the national feeling and make 
his people realize that the Empire is ever superior 
to the State. He feels that he is the man who is needed 
to lead Germany to great and glorious things. The 
fondest hopes of the founders of the German Empire 
are being realized, and the work so grandly begun by 
William I., Bismarck, Moltke, and Frederic III. is 
being carried forward by the present Emperor. Un- 
der his regime, the nation has had peace and prosperity, 
growth and development, and the German Empire 
of to-day commands the respect and admiration of all 
enlightened nations. 



266 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Grosvenor's Contemporary History of the World. 

Sears' Governments of the World To-day. 

Mueller's Politische Geschichte der Gegenwart. 

Taylor's History of Germany. 

Fay's Three Germanys. 

Lord's Two German Giants.- 

Lowe's Life of Prince Bismarck. 

Whitman's Imperial Germany. 

Freytag's Crown Prince Frederick. 

Diaries of Frederick. 

Lowe's German Emperor William II. 

The International Year Book. 

Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia. 

Hazell's Annual. 

IMPORTANT EVENTS (1880-1903). 

1880 March 11. — Unveiling of statue of Queen Louise in 
Berlin. 
October 15. — Completion of the Cologne Cathedral cel- 
ebrated with great ceremony. 
1883 September 28. — Dedication of the National Monument 
on the "Niederwald". 
November 10. — Festival at Wittenberg in honor of the 
birth of Martin Luther. 
1886 January 3. — Silver Jubilee of Emperor William's ac- 
cession to the throne of Prussia. 
August 17. — Centenary celebration of the death of 
Frederic the Great. 

1890 Moltke Fete, in honor of his ninetieth birthday. 

189 1 May I. — International Art Exhibition at Berlin. 

1894 Oct. 26. — Chancellor Caprivi retired, 

1895 April I. — Celebration of Bismarck's eightieth birthday. 

1896 January 17. — Prof. Roentgen of Wurzburg announces 

the discovery of the X-ray. 
May I. Berlin Industrial Exposition with colonial exhibit. 
September 19. — International Woman's Congress at 

Berlin. 

1897 March 22. — Magnificent bronze statue of Emperor 

William I. unveiled in Berlin. 

1899 August 25. — Celebration throughout Germany of the 

one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of Goethe's birth. 

1900 January i. — New Civil Code went into effect. 

June 16. — Colossal bronze statue of Bismarck unveiled 
in Berlin. 

October 17. — Resignation of Chancellor Hohenlohe ac- 
cepted and Count von Biilow appointed his successor. 



NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 26/ 

1901 January 17 and 18. — Bicentenary celebration of the 

Prussian Kingdom, 
March 23. — Attempt by an epileptic youth to assassinate 
the Emperor. 

1902 February 25. — Prince Henry of Prussia comes to the 

United States to represent Emperor William II. at the 
launching of the Meteor. 
November 7. — Andrew White is succeeded by Charle- 
magne Tower as German Ambassador. 

1903 May 2. — Emperor William confers with Pope Leo at the 

Vatican. 

THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 

The German Empire as now constituted consists of 

Four Kingdoms: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirtemberg. 

Six Grand Duchies: Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Saxe- 
Weimar, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg - Strelitz, Mecklenburg - 
Schwerin. 

Five Duchies: Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Co- 
burg-Gotha, Brunswick, Anhalt. 

Seven Principalities: Schwartzburg - Sondershausen, 
Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, Waldeck, Reuss (Older Line), Reuss 
(Younger Line), Lippe, Schaumburg-Lippe. 

Three Free Towns: Hamburg, LUbeck, Bremen. 

One Imperial Province: Alsace-Lorraine. 



KINGS AND EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 



HEREDITARY MONARCHY. 

CARLOVINGIAN RACE.— Kings of France and Germany. 

King of France and Germany. Crowned 



Charles I., 

Charlemagne, 772 



Louis I., 

Le Debonnaire, 814 

Loth AIRE I., 840 



Louis II., 
the German, 



Louis II. (Em- 
peror: an empty 
title), 855 

Charles II., the 

Bald (le Chauve), 

875 

Louis III., the Stam- 
merer (le Begue), 877 

Charles III., the Fat 

(le Gros), 881 

Arnulf or Arnoul, 
887 

Blind 
(I'Aveugle) (nom- 
J inal reign), 899 

I Louis IV., I'Enfant 
I (the Child), 899 



nephew, 
r Louis the 



Emperor of Germany and Italy. Begin- 
ning of connection between Germany and 
Italy. Married Ermengarde, daughter of 
Didier, King of Lombardy. Sent her back 
in a year. Had nine wives altogether. 

Son. Married Judith, daughter of Guelph, 
Duke of Bavaria. 

Son. King of Italy as well as titular Emperor 
of Germany. Died in a monastery at 
Treves (Trier), 855. (Kingdom of Lor- 
raine.) Treaty of Verdun, 843. 

Son of Louis le Debonnaire. Took the north 
of Germany from his brother Lothaire. 
Died, 876, at Frankfort. 

Son of Lothaire I. Only shared his father's 
kingdom with two brothers. 

Son of Louis le Debonnaire and Judith. 
Poisoned in a hut on Mont Cenis, 877. 

Son of Charles the Bald. Died 879. 

Crowned King of Italy. Deposed. 

Crowned Emperor at Rome, 896. Germans 
take Rome. 

Grandson of Louis II. Crowned by Pope 
Benedict IV., 901. Captured and blinded 
by Beranger, King of Italy. 

Son of Arnulf. Died 911. Last of the Car" 
lovingian Race in Germany. 



268 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 



269 



SEPARATION OF GERMANY FROM FRANCE. 
ELECTIVE MONARCHY. 



SAXON DYNASTY 

(Otto, Duke of Sax- 
ony), 911 

Conrad I., Duke of 
Franconia (Electo- 
rate), 911 

Heinrich I., 

the Fowler, 918 

Otto I., the Great, 936 



Otto II., 

the Bloody, 973 

Otto III., the Red, 983 

Heinrich II., Duke of 

Bavaria, 1002 



— Kings of Germany and Italy (not France). 

Married Luitgarde, daughter of Amulf(Emp.). 
He refused the title of King on account 
of old age. 

Married Placidia, daughter of Louis IV. 
Dukes and Counts independent of the 
Emperor. Named his successor. 

Son of Otto, Duke of Saxony. Crowned king. 
Is called the "City builder". Conquered 
Huns, Vandals, Danes, and Bohemians. 

Beginning of "Holy Roman Empire", Son 
of Heinrich the Fowler. Crowned by Pope 
John XII., 962. I. Married Eadgath, sis- 
ter of Athelstane, King of England, and 
daughter of Edmund. II. Married Ade- 
laide, widow of Lothaire, King of Lom- 
bardy, 951. Subdued Italy. 

Son. Married Theophania, a Greek princess. 
Said to have murdered his chief nobility at 
a feast. Wounded by a poisoned arrow. 

Son. Poisoned. 

Cousin of Otto III., great-grandson of Hein- 
rich the Fowler. Called the Lame and the 
Saint. 



FRANCONIAN DYNASTY.— Descendants of the House of Saxony. 



Conrad II., 

the Salique, 1024 
Heinrich III., 

the Black, 1039 
Heinrich IV., 1056 



Heinrich V., 1106 



Lothaire 
Saxony, 



n.. 



D. of 

1125 



Great-great-grandson of Otto I. 
Son. 

Son. His mother. Empress Agnes, regent. 
Married Bertha von Susa. Sent for by the 
Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) to Ca- 
nossa. Deposed and exiled by his bad sons, 
Rodolf, Hermann, Conrad, and Heinrich. 

Son. Married Matilda (Maud), daughter of 
Henry I. of England. Heinrich disputed 
about investitures. Disappeared from his 
palace. No children. 

Called the Saxon. 



2/0 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIA 



(Ghibelline, Waiblingen). 



Son of Frederic von Biiren and Agnes, daugh- 
ter of Heinrich IV. Founder of the Ho- 
henstaufen or Ghibelline Dynasty. Wars 
of Guelphs and Ghibellines. Weinsberg. 
Second Crusade — Conrad defeated; re- 
turned home, 1 1 49. 

Nephew of Conrad III. Married Beatrice of 
Burgundy. Wars in Italy; Milan destroyed. 
Ruined Heinrich the Lion. Third Cru- 
sade against Saladin. Drowned in Asia 
Minor. 

Son. Married Constance the Nun. Took 
part in third Crusade. Kept King Rich- 
ard (Coeur de Lion) prisoner. Fourth 
Crusade. Teutonic knights established. 

Assassinated by Otto von Wittelsbach of 
Bavaria. 

Son of Heinrich the Lion, the Guelphic Duke 
of Bavaria, and Matilda, daughter of 
Henry II. of England. Elected by 
Guelphs, etc. Excommunicated and de- 
posed, 1 2 15. Married daughter of the 
murdered Philip of Swabia. Died 12 18. 

Son of Heinrich VI. and Constance the Nun. 
Friend of the Saracens. Sixth Crusade — 
crowned himself King of Jerusalem. 
Married Yolande of Jerusalem, daughter 
of Jean de Brienne. Deposed. 

Nominated by the Pope; not crowned till 
1248. Married Elizabeth of Brunswick. 
Defeated Conrad IV., 125 1. Killed in 
Friesland, 1256. 

Conrad IV. of Sicily Son of Frederic II. Despoiled of his posses- 
and Swabia, 1250 sions by the Pope. Died 1254. His half- 
brother, Manfred, seized his estates in 
Italy. His son, Conradino, murdered by 
Charles of Anjou, 1268. 

Interregnum, 1256 to 
1273 
Richard, Earl of Com- 1 
wall, 1257 

Alphonso of Castile, j 

1257 J 



Conrad III., Duke of 
Swabia, 1138 



Frederic I., Barba- 
rossa, Duke of Swa- 
bia, 1152 



Heinrich VI. 

of Swabia, 1190 



Philip of Swabia, 
brother, 1198 

Otto IV., the Proud 
(of Brunswick), 1208 



Frederic II. of Sicily 
and Swabia, 12 15 



f William, Earl of 
Holland, 1247 



} Only nominated. 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 



271 



HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG,^ BAVARIA. 
EMPERORS. 



RoDOLF I., Count of 
Hapsburg, 1273 

Interregnum^ 1291 

Adolphus, Count of 
Nassau, 1292 

Albrecht I., Duke of 
Austria, 1298 

Heinrich VIL of Lux- 
emburg, 1308 



Founder of the reigning dynasty of Austria. 
Defeated Ottocar, King of Bohemia, 1278. 
Died 1219. 



Defeated and slain by Albrecht of Austria. 

Son of Rodolf of Hapsburg. Swiss struggle 
for freedom. Assassinated 1308. 

Descendant of Frederic Barbarossa of the 
Swabian House of Hohenstaufen. De- 
posed. 



Ludwig IV. of Wittelsbach, House of Ba- 
varia. Rival to Frederic III., son of Al- 
brecht I. of Austria, grandson of Rodolf. 
War with Swiss. Morgarten. Rival 
Emperors became friends. 

After Frederic III.'s death. 



Grandson of Heinrich VII. of Luxemburg. 
His father, Blind Johann, His mother was 
descended from Ottocar, King of Bohemia. 
Edict called "Golden Bull". Tyrol ac- 
quired. 

The Drunkard. Son of Charles IV. Sem- 
pach. Wild confusion. 

A Guelph. Assassinated immediately after 
election. 

Of Hapsburg and Wittelsbach, by the mar- 
riage of Matilda, daughter of Rodolf of 
Hapsburg, with Louis, Duke of Bavaria. 

Brother of Wenceslas the Drunkard; son of 
Charles IV. Became King of Bohemia 
in 1419. Driven from the throne, 1438, 
by Albrecht II. 

^ Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, held by Holland, ceded to Charles VL, 
Emperor of Germany, at the Peace of Utrecht, 17 13. Annexed to Hol- 
land, 1815. A portion given to the new kingdom of Belgium, 1830. 
Neutral province in present day under kingdom of Holland. 



Interregnum 


J 


^3T^3 


Ludwig IV 


. oi 


Ba- 


varia. 




1314 


Frederic 


III 


of 


Austria, 




1314 


Ludwig IV. 


> 




! alone. 


^330 


Charles IV. 


of 


Lux- 


emburg. 




1347 


Wenceslas, 


Kin 


g of 


Bohemia, 




1378 


Frederic III. 


of Bruns- 


wick, 




1400 


Rupert, Count 


Pala- 


tine of the Rhine 


1400 



SiGiSMUND, King of 
Hungary, 14 10 



2/2 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



(Jossus of Moravia, Chosen by one party of electors. Died next 
nominated) year. 



HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. HAPSBURG. 



Albrecht II., 1438 



Interregnum, 1439 

Frederic IV. (or 
III.), 1440 

Maximilian I., 1493 



Charles V. (I. of 
Spain), 15 19 



Ferdinand I., son of 
Philip of Austria, 

1556 

Maximilian II., 1564 



RoDOLF II., 1576 



Matthias, 



1612 



Ferdinand II., 1619 



The Great." Duke of Austria, son-in- 
law of Sigismund, King of Hungary and 
Bohemia, and great-great-grandson of 
Albrecht I. 



"The Pacific" (or "the Sleepy"). 

Son of Frederic IV. (or III.). Married Mary 
of Burgundy and Bianca Sforza. Wars 
with Low Countries, Swiss, Venice, French, 
and Turks (Battle of Spurs). Reforma- 
tion begun. Diet of Worms. On Maxi- 
milian's death, both Francis I. of France 
and Charles I. of Spain became competi- 
tors for the throne. 

Son of Philip, Archduke of Austria, and 
Juana of Castile. Grandson of Maximil- 
ian I. Reformation. Enormous king- 
dom. Resigned. 

Brother of Charles V. Succeeded on his 
brother's resignation. King of Hungary 
and Bohemia. 

Son of Ferdinand I. Married Maria, daugh- 
ter of Charles V. Established religious 
toleration. 

Son of Maximilian II. Surrendered Austria, 
Hungary, and Moravia to his brother 
Matthias in 1608; and Bohemia, Silesia, 
and Lusatia in 161 2. 

Son of Maximilian II. Forced his brother 
Rodolf to resign his crown. Adopted his 
cousin Ferdinand of Hungary, son of Arch- 
duke Charles and grandson of Ferdinand 
I., as his heir, and gave him Bohemia. 
Thirty Years' War began 1618. 

King of Hungary and Bohemia. Son of 
Archduke Charles and grandson of Ferdi- 
nand I. Carried on Thirty Years' War 
against the Protestants, 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 



273 



Ferdinand III. 
Leopold I., 



1637 Son of Ferdinand II. Peace of Westphalia. 

1658 Son of Ferdinand III. War with Turks; 
they are defeated at St. Gothard, 1664. 
Lost Alsace to France, 1 680-1. Peace of 
Ryswick. Carlowitz. Began the War of 
Spanish Succession, 1701. Empire saved 
at Blenheim, 1704. 

Son of Leopold I., King of Hungary. War 
with France. 

Son of Leopold I. and brother of Joseph I. 
Last of the Hapsburgs. Peace of Utrecht. 
Increased his territories. Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion. (The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, 
etc.) 

Daughter of Charles VI. Married Francis, 
Duke of Lorraine, 1736. He exchanged 
Lorraine for Tuscany, 1737. Disputed 
succession with Charles VII. Seven Years' 
War between Maria Theresa and Frederic 
II. the Great of Prussia. Combined with 
Russia for partition of Poland, 1772. 
England supported Maria Theresa. Died 
1780. 

Charjles VII. -^ 1742 Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria, a de- 

.^ scendant of Rodolf of Hapsburg. Elected 
Emperor against Maria Theresa. France 
W. supported Charles VII. Died 1745. 



Joseph I., 



Charles VI., 



Maria Theresa 



1705 



1711 



1740 



Rivals 



HOUSE OF LORRAINE. 



Francis L, of Lorraine, 
1745 



Joseph II., 

the Reformer, 1765 



Leopold II., 1790 



Husband of Maria Theresa. Descended 
from Gerard, Duke of Lorraine, the first 
hereditary Duke of Lotharingia, 1048. 
War with the Turks, 1738. Crowned 1745. 

Son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa. Trav- 
elled in France as Count Falkenstein, 1777. 
His sister was Marie Antoinette of France. 
Jesuits suppressed. Made great changes 
and reforms; visited in consequence by 
Pope Pius VI. 

Son of Francis I. Grand Duke of Tuscany. 
Succeeded his brother Joseph II. Signed 
Convention of Pilnitz against French Re- 
public, 1 79 1. 



2/4 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



f Francis II., of Ger- 
{ many, 1792 

J Francis I., of Aus- 
I tria. 

1 Resigned Germany, 
[ 1806 



Son of Leopold II. Joined Prussia against 
Napoleon Buonaparte, 1794. Peace of 
Campo Formio. League with England. 
Defeated at Marengo and Hohenlinden. 
Peace of Luneville. Resigned German 
crown, 1806. Became Francis I. of Aus- 
tria. War with France, 1809. Peace of 
Vienna. His daughter Maria Luisa mar- 
ried Napoleon, 18 10. Supported Napo- 
leon in Russian Campaign, 181 2. Joined 
Russia and Prussia against him, 1813. 



Confederation of the 
Rhine, 1806 



Germanic Confeder- 
ation, with Austria 
at the head, 18 15 



North German Con- 
federation, with 
Prussia at the head, 
1866 



Formed by Napoleon Buonaparte when he 
abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and 
the Emperor of Germany became Emperor 
of Austria. It consisted of France, Ba- 
varia, Wiirtemberg, Saxony, and West- 
phalia; seven grand duchies, six duchies, 
and twenty principalities. Diet to be held 
at Frankfort. This Confederation ended in 
1814 with the career of Napoleon. 

Superseded the Confederation of the Rhine, 
181 5. First Diet at Frankfort, Novem- 
ber, 181 6. Last Diet, August, 1866. It 
comprised Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Sax- 
ony, Hanover, Wiirtemberg (the last four 
kingdoms had been formed by Napoleon), 
grand duchies of Baden and Hesse, Den- 
mark, the Netherlands, Saxe-Weimar, 
Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Alten- 
burg, Brunswick, Nassau, Mecklenburg, 
Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Olden- 
burg, three Anhalts and two Schwartz- 
burgs, two HehenzoUerns, Lichtenstein, 
two Reusses, Schaumburg-Lippe, Lippe and 
Waldeck, Free Cities, Liibeck, Frankfort, 
Bremen, and Hamburg. 

Prvissia in alliance with the above States (with 
the exception of Austria, Bavaria, Han- 
over, Wiirtemberg, Baden, Denmark, 
Netherlands, Nassau, Hohenzollern, 
Lichtenstein) . 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 



275 



HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN OF PRUSSIA. 



(EMPERORS OF GERMANY.) 



William I., 



1871 



Frederic I., 



William II., 



Son of^Frederic William III., King of Prussia; 
succeeded his brother Frederic William IV., 
1861. War with Austria. Sadowa. Chief 
command of German army against France. 
Received surrender of Napoleon III., 1870, 
and was crowned at Versailles, 187 1, as 
Emperor of Germany (Bismarck Chancel- 
lor). Died 1^" 



Married Victoria, Princess Royal of Great 
Britain, 1858. Proclaimed Emperor, 1888. 
Was never crowned. Reigned thirteen 
weeks. Died of cancer, June, 1888. 

Married Augusta Victoria, Princess of 
Schleswig-Holstein. Came to the throne, 
June, 1888. 



PRUSSIA CONSISTS OF- 



Eastem Prussia. 

Western Prussia. 

Brandenburg, ancient Electorate. 

Silesia, conquered by Frederic the Great, 1763. 

Pomerania. 

Posen, part of the ancient Kingdom of Poland. 

Prussian Saxony, ceded 1815, at Congress of Vienna. 

Schleswig-Holstein, ceded by Denmark 1866. 

Hanover, once a Kingdom, ceded 1866, and became Prussian 
Province. 

Westphalia, part of Kingdom formed by Napoleon. 

Hesse-Nassau, is formed by Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort and 
Homburg, ceded to Prussia in 1866. 

Rhenish Prussia, or three Archbishoprics-Electorates. 

Hohenzollern, royal Principality. 



2/6 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

PRUSSIA. (BRANDENBURG.)— KINGDOM. 

Margraves and Electors oe Brandenburg. 

1 1 34 Albert, the Bear, ist Elector of Brannybor or Brandenburg. 

1 1 70 Otto I. 

1 184 Otto II. 

1206 Albert II. 

1 22 1 Johann I. and Otto III. 

1266 Johann II. 

1282 Otto IV. 

1309 Waldemar. 

1319 Heinrich I. 

1320 Interregnum. 

1323 Ludwig I., of Bavaria. 

1352 Ludwig II., the Roman. 

1365 Otto v., the Sluggard. 

1373 Wenceslas of Luxemburg, the Drunkard. (Wenzel.) (Emp.) 

1378 Sigismund, brother of Wenceslas : Emperor. 

1388 Jossus the Bearded: Rival Emperor. 

ELECTORS. (HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN.) 

1415 Frederic I., of Nuremberg, bought the Electorate from Sigismund. 



1440 Frederic II., Ironside 

1470 Albert HI., Achilles 

1476 Johann III., Cicero. 

1499 Joachim I., Nestor. 

1535 Joachim II., Hector. 

1571 Johann George. 



Dukedom of Prussia. 
In 1525 Albert of Branden- 
burg, last Grand Master of the 
Teutonic Knights, became 
Lutheran, and was made Duke 
of Prussia. He left two grand- 
daughters and heiresses. 
1598 Joachim Frederic, married younger grand-daughter of Duke 
Albert. 



ELECTORS AND DUKES (Hohenzollern). 

1608 John Sigismund becomes duke by his marriage with Anne, elder 

grand-daughter of Duke Albert. 
1 619 George William. 

1640 Frederic William, the "Great Elector". 
1688 r Frederic III., crowned king as Frederic I. (as follows): — 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

1 701 I Frederic I. 

1 713 Frederic William I. Founded the Order of Black Eagle. 

1740 Frederic II., the "Great". Married Elizabeth Christina of 

Brunswick Bevern. Made Prussia a military power. 
1786 Frederic William II. 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 277 

1797 Frederic William III. Contended with Napoleon. 
1840 Frederic William IV. 

1861 f William I. Married Princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar. 
Crowned Emperor at Versailles. 

j EMPERORS OF GERMANY AND KINGS OF 

PRUSSIA. 

1871 t William I. Died March, 1888. 

1888 Frederic (Fritz). Married Princess Royal of England. Died 

June, 1888. 
1888 William II. Married Princess Augusta Victoria of Holstein 

Augustenburg. 



1797 



WURTEMBERG.— KINGDOM. 
Originally Part of Swabia. Dukes. 

1494 Eberhard I. 

1496 Eberhard II. 

1498 Ulric. Deprived of his estates by the Emperor Charles V. Re- 
covered them 1534. 

1^50 Christopher the Pacific. 

1568 Louis the Pious. 

1593 Frederic. 

1608 John Frederic. Joined the Protestants in Thirty Years' War. 

1628 Eberhard III. 

1674 William Louis. 

1677 Eberhard Louis. Served under Wilham III. in Ireland and with 
the English armies on the Continent. 

1733 Charles Alexander. 

1737 Charles Eugene. 

1793 Louis Eugene. Joins the war against France. 

1 7^5 Frederic I. Makes peace with France 1796. 

Frederic II. Son. Married Princess Royal of England. 
Elector of Germany 1803. King 1805. 

wijrtemberg made a kingdom, 1805, by 

Napoleon Buonaparte. 

Kings. 

1805 Frederic I. (2nd Duke). Ally of Napoleon in Russia. One 

of the allies against him in 1813. 
1816 WilHam I. Son. AboHshed serfdom. 
1864 Charles I. Son. Married Princess Olga of Russia. 



278 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



SAXONY.— KINGDOM. 

785 Witekind, said to be descended from Wodin (Odin). 

880 Saxony was made a Duchy. 

1 180 Saxony was made an Electorate. 

1806 Saxony was made a Kingdom. 

Electors. 

1423 Frederic I. (of the House of Misnia). 
1428 Frederic II. 



ERNESTINE LINE. 



ALBERTINE LINE. 



1464 Ernest, son of Frederic II. 1464 Albert, son of Frederic II. 
i486 Frederic III. 1500 George. 

1525 John. 1539 Henry. 

1541 Maurice. 
1532 John Frederic. Deprived by the Emperor Charles V., who gave 

his estates to 

1548 Maurice (Albertine Line). 

1553 Augustus. 

1586 Christian I. 

1591 Christian II. 

161 1 John George I. 

1656 John George II. 

1680 John George III. 

1 69 1 John George IV. 

1694 Frederic Augustus I., King of Poland, 1697. 

1733 Frederic Augustus II., King of Poland. 

1763 Frederic Augustus III., King of Saxony, 1806. 

Kings. 



1806 Frederic Augustus I. 

1827 Anthony Clement. 

1836 Frederic Augustus II 

1854 John, brother. 

1873 Albert, son. 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 2/9 



BAVARIA.— KINGDOM. 

630 and 660 Conquered from the Kelts by the Franks. 

788 Tasillon deposed by Charlemagne, who established Margraves. 

Dukes. 

1 07 1 Guelph I. 

iioi Guelph II. Married Countess Matilda. 

1 1 20 Heinrich the Black, brother. 

1 126 Heinrich the Proud, son: deposed 1138. 

1 154 Heinrich the Lion. Ancestor of the Brunswick family. Quar 

relied with Frederic sBarbarossa. 

1 180 Otto, Count of Wittelsbach. 

1183 Ludwig, son. 

123 1 Otto II., the Illustrious, son. 

1253 Ludwig II., the Severe, son. 

1294 Ludwig III. (Emperor). 

1347 Stephan I. 

1375 Johann L, brother. 

1397 Ernest, brother. 

1438 Albrecht I., son. 

1460 Johann IL, son. 

1465 Albrecht II. , brother. 

1508 Wilhelm I., son. Opposed Reformation. 

1550 Albrecht III., son. 

1579 Wilhelm IL, son: abdicated. 

1596 Maximilian the Great, son. First Elector, 

Dukes and Electors. 

1 65 1 Ferdinand Maria. 

1679 Maximilian Emmanuel, son. Defeated at Blenheim. 

1726 Charles Albrecht, son. (Elected Emperor.) 

1745 Maximilian Joseph L, son. (End of younger line of Wittelsbach.) 

1778 Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine of the Rhine. 

1799 Maximilian Joseph IL Elector. Made King by Napoleon, 
1805. 

Kings. 

1805 Maximilian Joseph I. Deserted Napoleon. 

1825 Ludwig (Louis) I. Abdicated. 

1848 Maximilian Joseph IL, son. 

1864 Ludwig (Louis) II. Drowned. 

1886 Otto, brother. (Prince Luitpold, Uncle, Regent, and Heir.) 



28o 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



1074 



BADEN.— GRAND DUCHY. 

Landulus, Count of Hapsburg. 

Landulus, Count of Breisgau. 

Berthold, Duke of Zahringen. 

Hermann I., Count of Zahringen and Hochberg. 

Margraves of Baden. 



II30 


Hermann I. Married 


Judith, 


heiress of Baden. 




II60 


Hermann II. Son. 










1 190 


Hermann III. Son. 










1243 


Hermann IV. Son. 










1250 


Hermann V. Son. 










1288 


Rodolf I. Brother. 










I29I 


Hermann VI. Son. 










1333 


Frederic II. Son. 










1353 


Hermann VII. Son. 










1372 


Rodolf II. Cousin. 










I39I 


Rodolf III. Son. 










I43I 


Bernhard I. Brother. 










1453 


James I. Son. 










1475 


Charles II. Son. 










1527 


Christopher I. Son. 










Margraves of Baden- 




Margraves of Baden- 




Baden. 






DURLACH. 




1547 


Bernhard IV. Son 
Christopher I. 


of 


1547 


Ernst. Son of 
pher I. 


Christo- 


1557 


Philibert. Son. 




1553 


Charles. Son. 




1569 


Philip. Son. 




1577 


Ernest Frederic. 


Son. 


1588 


Edward. Cousin. 




1634 


George Frederic. 


Brother. 


1600 


William. Son. 




1638 


Frederic I. Son. 




1677 


Louis William. Grand- 


1659 


Frederic II. Son. 






son. 




1677 


Frederic III. Son. 


1707 


Louis George. Son. 




1709 


Charles William. 


Son. 


1750 


Augustus William George. 


1738 


Charles Frederic 


Grand- 




Brother. Died i 


771. 




son. 






No issue. 











Grand Dukes of Baden. 

1806 Charles Frederic, Markgraf of Baden-Durlach, inherited the 
territories of the Margraves of Baden-Baden on the death of 
Augustus William George without issue in 1771. Elector of 
the Empire, 1803. Grand Duke by Congress of Vienna, 1806. 

181 1 Charles Louis Frederic. Grandson. 

1818 Louis William Augustus. Uncle. 

1830 Charles Leopold Frederic. Half-brother. 

1852. Louis. Son. Incompetent. Frederic William Louis acted as 
Regent. 

1856 Frederic William Louis. Brother. Married Princess Louise of 
Prussia. 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 



2^1 



HESSE.— GRAND DUCHY. 

The rulers were direct descendants of the Teuton tribe of Chatti. It 
formed part of the dominions of Charlemagne, and was joined to Thur- 
ingia till 1263, when Heinrich (son of a Duke of Brabant and Sophia, 
daughter of the Landgraf of Thuringia) became Landgraf of Hesse. 

In 1509, Phihp the Magnanimous, one of the successors of Heinrich, 
was an energetic supporter of the Reformation. At his death in 1567, 
Hesse was divided into Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, under his 
sons, William and George, and their descendants took part in the wars 
of Germany during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 

In 1803 Hesse-Cassel became an electorate. 

In 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt was made a grand duchy. 

(In 1807 Hesse-Cassel was incorporated with the kingdom of West- 
phalia; but in 1813 the electorate was re-established.) 



Electors of Hesse- 
Cassel. 

1803 William I. 
182 1 William II. 
1847 Frederic William. 
1875- 



Died 



Hesse-Cassel annexed to 
Prussia, 1866. 



Grand Dukes of Hesse- 
Darmstadt. 

1806 Louis I. Landgraf. Made 
grand duke by Napoleon 
Buonaparte. Joined 

Confederation of the 
Rhine. 

Joined Germanic Confed- 
eration. 

Louis II. Son. 

Louis III. Son. 

Joined North German Con- 
federation. 

Louis IV. Nephew. Mar- 
ried Princess Alice of 
Great Britain. 

Joined Prussia. 

Ernest Louis. Son. 



181S 

1830 
1848 
1866 

1870 



1871 



MECKLENBURG.— GRAND DUCHIES. 

Descendants of Genseric the Vandal, who died 477. 

Mecklenburg given to Wallenstein, 1628; restored in 1630 to its own 
duke. 

1 701 Divided into two duchies. 
181 5 Two duchies made grand duchies. 
1866 Joined the North German Confederation. 

Grand Dukes. 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 



18 1 5 Frederic Francis I. 
1842 Frederic Francis II. 
1883 Frederic Francis III. 



1815 Charles. 

181 6 George. 

i860 Frederic William. 



282 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



OLDENBURG.— GRAND DUCHY. 

1448 Annexed to Denmark. In 1773 Christian VII. of Denmark 
ceded it to Russia in exchange for Holstein Gottorp. Duke- 
dom established shortly afterwards. 

1866 Joined the North German Confederation. 

Dukes. 

1773 Frederic Augustus. 
1785 Peter Frederic. 
1 81 1 Napoleon Buonaparte seized the duchy, but it was restored in 1814. 

Grand Dukes. 

1829 Augustus. 

1853 Peter. 

1896 Frederic August. 



SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH.— GRAND DUCHY. 

(Ernestine Branch.) 

Grand duchy in 1815. 

The grand dukes are descended from John Frederic, Elector of 
Saxony, 1554. 

Grand Dukes. 

1815 Charles Augustus. 
1828 Charles Frederic. 
1853 Charles Alexander. 

SAXE-MEININGEN.— DUCHY, 

The dukes are descended from Ernest the Pious, Duke of Saxony, 
1605. 

Dukes. 

1680 Bernard. 

1706 Bernard abdicalvd. 

1866 George. 



SAXE-ALTENBURG.— DUCHY. 
Dukes descended from Ernest the Pious of Saxony, 1605. 

Dukes. 

Ernest, the first duke, died in 17 15. 
George. 
1853 Ernest, son of George. 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 283 

SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA.— DUCHY. 

1826 Ernest I., Duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, married the heiress of 
Saxe-Gotha. His brother Leopold married Princess Charlotte 
of England, and became King of the Belgians, 1831. His 
nephew Ferdinand married Maria da Gloria, Queen of 
Portugal. 

1844 Ernest II,, son. Brother of Albert, Prince Consort of Great 
Britain. 

1893 Ernest II. died 1893 without issue. His title and estates passed 
to his nephew, H.R.H. Duke of Edinburgh, son of Albert, 
Prince Consort. 



BRUNSWICK.— DUCHY. 
Conquered by Charlemagne. 



1047 Albert Azzo II. Descendant of Charlemagne. Married Cune- 
gonde, heiress of Guelph. Duke of Carinthia in Bavaria. 

1097 Guelph, son. Duke of Bavaria. Married Judith of Flanders, 
a descendant of Alfred of England. 

1 1 25 Heinrich the Proud. Descended from Guelph and Judith. 
Acquired Brunswick and Saxony. 

Dukes of Brunswick. 

1 1 39 Heinrich the Lion, son. Married Maud (Matilda), daughter of 
Henry 11. of England. Founder of the Brunswick family. 
Quarrelled with Frederick Barbarossa. In 1180 the Duchy of 
Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach; the Duchy of Sax- 
ony to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the House of Anhalt: 
Brunswick and Luneburg restored to Heinrich the Lion at the 
intercession of Henry II. of England. 

1 195 Heinrich the Long and Wilhelm, sons. 

1213 Otto I., son of Wilhelm. First to bear the title of Duke of 
Brunswick. 

1252 Albrecht I., son. 

1278 Albrecht II., son. 

1318 Otto, Magnus I., and Ernest, sons. 

1368 Magnus II., son of Magnus. 

Dukes of Brunswick — Wolfenbutel. 

First Branch. 

1409 Heinrich I., son of Magnus 11. 

141 6 Wilhelm I., and Heinrich 11. 

1482 Frederic and Wilhelm II., ) ^^^^ ^^ wilhelm I. 

1495 Hemrich 111. and Enc, ) 

15 14 Heinrich IV., son of Heinrich II. 

1568 Julius, son. 

1589 Heinrich Julius, son. 

1613 Frederic Ulrich, son. Died without issue. 



284 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

Second Branch. 

1634 Augustus, son of Heinrich of Luneburg. 

1666 Rodolf Augustus and Anthony Ulric. 

1704 Anthony Ulric alone. 

1 7 14 Augustus Wilhelm, son. 

1 73 1 Ludwig Rodolf, brother. 

1735 Ferdinand Albrecht, Duke of Brunswick-Bevern. 

1735 Charles, son. 

1780 Charles Wilhelm Ferdinand, son. Great general. Married 
Princess Augusta of England. 

1806 Wilhelm Frederic, fourth son (the three elder brothers being 
blind). During Napoleon's reign Brunswick was incorporated 
A^th the kingdom of WestphaHa. After the battle of Leipsic, 
Wilhelm Frederic recovered possession of Brunswick, 1813. 

1815 Charles Frederic Wilhelm, son. Retired to England. 

1830. Wilhelm, brother. Provisionally. 1831, definitely. 

1884-5 Placed under the Regency of Prince AllDrecht of Prussia. 



ANHALT DUCHY. 



Claims descent from Berenthobaldus, in the sixth century. 

In 1606 the principality divided between four sons of Joachim 
Ernest. 

Anhalt-Dessau. 

Zerbst. Extinct 1793. 

Potsgau or Coethen. Extinct 1847. 

Bernburg. Extinct 1863. 
1809 The Princes of Anhalt became dukes. 
181 7 Leopold, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Bernburg. 
1871 Frederic, Duke of Anhalt. 



PRINCIPALITIES. 

SCHWARTZBURG. 

This house dates back to the twelfth century. 
1349 Count Gunther. Elected as Emperor by one party in Germany. 
From the sons of Gunther are descended the present rulers. 

SCHWARTZBURG-RUDOLSTADT. SCHWARTZBURG-SONDERS- 

(Made a principality, 1697.) hausen. 

1807 Albert. (Made a principality, 1710.) 

1869 George. 1835 Gunther. 

Gunther. 18 Charles. 



Waldeck and Pyrmont. 

The late reigning family claim descent from the Saxon hero Wite- 
kind, 772. The united principalities were established in 1682, 
1845 Prince George Victor. Abdicated, 1867. 
1867-8 Administration transferred to Prussia under Prince George. 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 285 

Reuss. 

Two united principalities. Raised by Emperor Sigismund, 1426. 
The reigning family sprang from Ekbert, Count of Osterode, 
tenth century. 

Reuss-Greitz. Reuss-Schleitz. 

1859 HeinrichXXII. 1867 Heinrich XIV. 



SCHAUMBURG-LlPPE. 

T033 Made a county by Adolphus of Sondersleben. 

1640 Otho IV. (Count). Died, and his mother, Elizabeth, gave the 

domains to Philip of Lippe. the ancestor of the reigning princes. 

(Titles assumed, 1807.) 
i860 Adolphus. 



Lippe-Detmold. (Constitutional principality.) 
1851 Leopold. 

Waldemar. 



SCHLESWIG AND HOLSTEIN. 

Counts and Dukes. 

Duchies once belonging to Denmark. 
Inhabitants were Saxons. Subdued by Charlemagne. 
1106 or mo Adolphus of Schauenberg became count. His de- 
scendants ruled till 1459, when Adolphus VII. died without 
issue. 
1459 Christian, King of Denmark (nephew of Adolphus VII.), elected 

as duke by Holstein and Schleswig. 
1544 Christian II. Grandson. Divided his estates amongst his 
brothers on condition that they remained subject to Denmark. 

The Elder Branch. The Younger Branch. 

Reigned in Denmark until the "Holstein-Gottorp." 

death of Frederic VII., From whom descended through 
1863. marriage the 

1751-1818 Kings of Sweden. 
• .. 1762-1896 Czars of Russia. Peter III. (Son 

of Duke Charles Frederic and Anne of 

Russia ) His vdfe was the great 

Catherine II. 

1773 Catherine II of Russia ceded Holstein- 

■ Gottorp to Denmark in exchange 

for Oldenburg. 

1866 Schleswig and Holstein ceded to Prussia. 



286 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 

LITHUANIA. 

Formerly a grand duchy in N.E. Prussia. The natives (Sclavonians) 
long maintained their independence against the Russians and Poles. 
In 1386 their grand duke Jagellon became King of Poland, and was 
baptized. 
1501 Lithuania incorporated with Poland, when Duke Casimir 

became king. 
1569 Lithuania united to Prussia. 

The larger part of Lithuania now belongs to Russia, the re- 
mainder to Prussia. 



AUSTRIA. 

Fifth and sixth centuries overrun by Huns and Avars. 
791—796 Charlemagne conquered Austria and established Margraves. 
817 Louis the German, son of Louis le Debonnaire, subdued Radbod, 

Margrave of Austria. 
883 The descendants of Radbod made war against Charles le Gros, 
but after that time the Margraves were princes of the Empire. 

Margraves. 

928 Leopold I. 1096 Leopold III. 

1018 Albert I. 1136 Albert II. 

1056 Ernest. 1136 Leopold IV. 

1075 Leopold II. 1 142 Heinrich II. Made a duke 

in 1156. 

Dukes (House of Babenberg). 

1 156 Heinrich II. 

1 1 77 Leopold V. (I. duke). Made Richard Coeur de Lion prisoner, 

but gave him up to Emperor Heinrich VI. Died 1194. 
1 194 Frederic I. the Catholic. 
1 198 Leopold VI. (II. duke) the Glorious. 
1230 Frederic II. the Warlike. Killed in battle with the Hungarians, 

1246. 

Interregnum, 1246-12 76 (House of Hapsburg). 

1276 Rodolf I. of Hapsburg. (Emp.) He recovered the Austrian 
dukedom from Ottocar II. of Bohemia on the field of Marzfeld, 
and gave it to his son Albrecht. 

1282 Albrecht I. and his brother Rodolf II. Albrecht became Em- 
peror of Germany 1298. 

1308 Frederic III. (I. Duke of Hapsburg House) and Leopold I. 
(first Leopold of Hapsburg), the so-called Emperor of Germany, 
rival of Frederic III. of Morgarten. 

1326 Frederic HI. alone. 

1330 Albrecht II. and Otto his brother. 

1339 Albrecht II. alone. 

1358 Rodolf IV. 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 



287 



1365 
1395 
1411 

1411 

1439 
1457 
1493 



1804 

1835 
1848 



Albrecht III. and Leopold II. or III. Killed at Sempach. 

Wilhelm I. and brothers, and cousin Albrecht IV. 

The provinces divided into Duchies of Austria and Carinthia and 

County of Tyrol. 
Albrecht V. Obtains Bohemia and Moravia; King of Hungary 

and Emperor, 1437. 
Ladislas. Dies childless. 
Emperor Frederic III. and Albrecht VI. 
Emperor Maximilian I. Son of Frederic III. 

Emperors of Austro-Hungary. 



Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany) 

1806. 
Ferdinand. Son. Abdicated in favor of his nephew 

brother Francis Charles having renounced his rights). 
Francis Joseph I. Son of Francis Charles. 



Resigned Germany, 
(his 



BOHEMIA. 
Czechs. Sclavonians. 



Bohemia was governed by 
dukes, of whom the first 
was Borzivoi in 891. 



Kmcs. 

1 157 Ladislas, made king by 
Fred. Barbarossa. Mar- 
ried Margaret, daugh- 
ter of Duke Frederic of 
Austria. 



HUNGARY (Kings). 
Arpad Dynasty of Finnish 
Origin. 



A.D. 

997 



1038 

1041 
1044 

1047 
1061 

1064 

1075 
1077 

1095 
1114 
1131 

1141 
1161 



St. Stephen, Duke of Hun- 
gary, son of Geisa, estab- 
lished Christianity, sub- 
dued the Sclavs, and re- 
ceived the title of Apostolic 
King from the Pope, 
f Peter the German. De- 
I posed. 
{ Aba, or Owen. 
I Peter again deposed, and 
[ his eyes put out. 
Andrew I. Deposed. 
Bela I. Killed by fall of a 

tower. 
Salamon. Son of Andrew 

I. 
Geisa I. Son of Bela. 
Ladislas I. the Pious. 
Coloman. Son of Geisa. 
Stephen 11. (Thunder.) 
Bela II. Had his eyes 

put out. 
Geisa II. 
Stephen III. and Stephen 

IV. Anarchy. Ladislas, 

son of Bela, crowned but 

not counted. 



1173 Bjla in, 



288 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



BOHEMIA. 
1 198 Premislas Ottocar I. 



1230 
1253 



1278 

1305 
1306 

1307 
1310 



1346 

1378 

1419 
1438 



1440 



Wenceslas III. (I. king). 

Premislas Ottocar II., 
rules over Austria and 
Styria. Refuses imperial 
crown. Vanquished by 
Rodolf, Emperor, and 
deprived of Bohemia, 
Styria, and Carinthia.^ 
Slain at Marzfeld. 

Wenceslas IV. (II. king). 

Wenceslas V. (III. king). 

Rodolf of Austria. 

Heinrich of Carinthia. 

John of Luxemburg: blind. 
Son of Heinrich VII. 
Emperor. Married Eliz- 
abeth, daughter and 
heiress of Wenceslas V. 
(or III.). Killed at 
Crecy. 

Charles. Son. Emperror 
Charles IV., 1347. 

Wenceslas VI. (IV. king). 
The Drunkard. Em- 
peror. 

Sigismund. Brother. Em- 
peror, 1410. Married 
Mary of Hungary. 

Albrecht of Austria. Son- 
in-law. Emperor. 



Ladislas (V. of Poland, IV. 
of Hungary) . 



HUNGARY. 

1 196 Eneric (Heinrich). Son. 
1204 Ladislas II. Reigned 



SIX 



1205 

1235 
1270 
1272 
1290 



Son of Bela 



(or v.). Son. 
Killed. 

the Venetian. 

of Rodolf of 
Emperor of 
Defeated 



Ladislas II. 
months. 

Andrew II. 
III. 

Bela IV. 

Stephen IV. 

Ladislas III. 

Andrew III. 
Son-in-law 
Hapsburg, 
Germany. 
Charles M artel, 1292. 
End of Arpad Dynasty. 
1 301 Wenceslas of Bohemia. 

Otto of Bavaria. 

Charibert (Charles of An- 
jou). 

Ludwig I. (Louis) the 
Great. King of Poland, 
1370. His brother An- 
drea married Juana of 
Naples and was mur- 
dered, 1345. 

Mary, king (daughter). 
Married Sigismund, 
King of Bohemia, 1419, 
and Emperor, 1410. 

Charles Durazzo, cousin of 
Juana of Naples, claimed 
the crown. He was as- 
sassinated, 1386. 

Albrecht, Duke of Austria. 
Married Elizabeth, 
daughter of Sigismund. 
Obtains the thrones of 
Hungary and Bohemia, 
and Germany, and died 
suddenly. 

Elizabeth, widow. She ") 
marries j 

Ladislas IV. (V. of Po- f 
land). Slain at Varna. J 

Interregnum. 
John Hunniades. Re- 
gent. 



1305 
1309 

1342 



1382 



1437 



1439 
1440 

1444 
1445 



' N.B. — Carinthia, a Bavarian duchy, annexed to Austria, 1336. 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 



289 



BOHEMIA. 

1458 George von Podiebrad. 

Father-in-law of Mat- 1458 
thias Corvinus. 

147 1 Ladislas (VI. of Poland 1490 
and V. of Hungary, 1490). 



1516 Ludwig I. King of Hun- 1516 
gary. Slain at Mohatz. 



HUNGARY. 

f Ladislas V. Poisoned. 

I Matthias Corvinus, son 

{ of John Hunniades. 

I Married daughter of 

[ G. Podiebrad. 
Ladislas VI. King of Bo- 
hemia. The Emperor 
Maximilian claims both 
kingdoms. 
Ludwig II. (I. of Bohe- 
mia). Slain at Mohatz. 



Bohemia and Hungary United. 

1526 The Emperor Ferdinand I. Brother of Charles V. Married 
Anne, sister of Ludwig II. 
John Zapolski, Waivode of Transylvania, elected by the Hun- 
garians, and supported by the Sultan, Solyman the Magnifi- 
cent. By treaty with Ferdinand I. he founds the principality 
of Transyb/ania. 

Ferdinand elected Emperor in 1558. 

N.B. — From the time of Ferdinand I. Bohemia and Hungary were 

united to Germany till the separation under Francis II. in 1806. (See 

Austria.) 

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE. 

(Continuation of Bohemia and Hungary.) 

1806 Francis!. Emperor of Austria. (Francis II. of Germ any. "» 
1835 Ferdinand. Son. Abdicated in favor of his nephew, his brother 

Francis Charles having given up his rights. 
1848 Francis Joseph. Son of Francis Charles. 



NOTES. 

Electors of Germany. 

912-918 In the reign of Conrad I., King of Germany, the dukes 
and counts, from being merely officers, became gradu- 
ally independent of the sovereign, and subsequently 
elected him. 
919 They confirmed the nomination of Henry I., Duke of Sax- 
ony, by Conrad as his successor. 
In the thirteenth century seven princes assumed the exclu- 
sive privilege of nominating the emperor. 
The Archbishop of Mainz (Mayence) . 
The Archbishop of Trier (Treves). 
The Archbishop of Koln (Cologne). 
The King of Bohemia. 
The Elector of Brandenburg. 
The Elector of Saxony. 
The Elector Palatine. 
1648 The Elector of Bavaria was added to the number. 
1692 The Elector of Hanover was added to the number. 
1777 The Elector Palatine acquired Bavaria, so the number 
was reduced to eight ; but at the peace of Luneville it 
1801 was increased to ten. Koln and Trier were set aside, 
and Baden, Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Cassel, and Salzburg 
declared electorates. 



THE RHINE. 

A Central Committee for the navigation of the Rhine exists, 
formed by members for Alsace, Lorraine, Baden, Bavaria, 
Hesse, Holland, and Prussia. 



290 



NOTES. 291 

SWABIA. 

A province of South Germany. 
496 Conquered by Clovis, and incorporated into the kingdom 

of the Franks. 
912 Made a duchy by Conrad I. 
1080 Hereditary in the House of Hohenstaufen. 
1 152 Duke Frederic III. became Emperor Frederic I. Barba- 

rossa. 
1268 Conradino, the last of his descendants, beheaded after 
Tagliacozzo. >'» 

(The Swabian League in 1254 was the beginning of the 
great Swabian League under the Emperor Frederic III., 
1488.) 
15 12-1806 Swabia counted as a circle of the Empire. 



Circles of Germany. 



Formed by Maximilian I. about 1500 to distinguish the 
members of the Diet of the Empire. 

1500 Franconia, Bavaria, Upper Rhine, Swabia, Westphalia, 
Lower Saxony. 

15 1 2 Austria, Burgundy, Lower Rhine, the Palatinate, Upper 
Saxony, and Brandenburg were added 

1806 Annulled when Napoleon Buonaparte formed the " Confed- 
eration of the Rhine ". 



CONDITION OF GERMANY. 



The present area of Germany extends from beyond the Rhine Area. 
to beyond the Vistula; or from Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) and 
Metz in Alsace-Lorraine to near Cracow and to Memel on the 
Russian frontier. It is bordered on the south by Switzerland 
and Austria, from which its rivers, the Elbe, Rhine, Oder, etc., 
run through Middle Germany, and the great sandy plain of 
North Germany to the North and Baltic Seas. 

Germany is governed under the Emperor by a Reichsrath of Govern- 
fifty-eight delegates from the respective states (seventeen for °^®^t- 
Prussia); and a Reichstag or Imperial Parliament of 382 mem- 
bers elected by ballot. 

The revenues are chiefly derived from salt, tobacco, spirits' Revenues, 
customs, post, and telegraphs. 

Seventy-eight gun-ships, thirty-three being ironclad, of which Imperial 
fourteen are first class, and further immediate additions are con- Navy, 
emplated. These do not include cruisers, torpedoes, etc. 



292 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Army. 



Universi- 
ties. 

Leading 

States, 

Population. 



511,885 in peace, and probably 3,000,000 in war. Both navy 
and army are under the Emperor as General -in-chief: but the 
kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg retain the separate command 
of their own armies in peace. 

Prussia has ten universities and ninety-two state academies, 
Bavaria has three universities, Wiirtemberg has one, at Tubingen. 

Prussia, 30 millions; Bavaria 5 J millions; Saxony, 3 J millions; 
Wiirtemberg, 2 millions; Baden, i| millions; or a total of 41 mil- 
lions; leaving about 8 J millions for the other twenty-one small 
states, dispersed chiefly in central and north-west Germany. 
The total figures include i^ millions for Alsace-Lorraine. 



GERMAN LITERATURE. 

The German language has two great branches, "hoch" and 
"platt " Deutsch, high and low German. 

The former became the literary language principally through 
its use by Luther in his translation of the Bible, 1522-34. 

The latter is spoken by the lower classes. There are many 
dialects. 

Formation of legendary Sagas (prose epics) of Burgundians, 

Franks, Goths, and Huns. Earliest 

Period till 
Charle- 
Influence of Christianity in literature. Legendary Bible his- magne. 

tory by monks. Metrical translations of Evangelists. Also gth and 
"Ludwigslied," *'Hildebrandlied," "Merseburger Gedichte," cg^Jj^ries 
songs of heroism and enchantment. 

First great period of literature of chivalry and knighthood. 
"Minnesinger," Parzival, Lohengriin, and lays of Charlemagne nth and 
by Von Eschenbach, Gottfried, Von Strasburg, Von Aue, etc. 12th 
From these are taken Wagner's celebrated operas. Two great Centuries, 
national epics, the "Nibelungenlied" and "Saga of Gudrun," 
composed from old German legends. 

Poetry in the hands of the " Meistersinger " 

13th to 

"Reineke Fuchs" (or Vos), Reynard the Fox, a low satirical 15th 
epic in low German in which beasts are actors. Caxton trans- Centuries, 
lated it into English, 1481; Goethe into high German, 1794; i6th ^" 
T. J. Arnold into English, 1855. Great writers of the Reforma- Centuries, 
tion. Luther's translation of the Bible. Works by Ulrich von 
Hiitten, Murner, Hans Sachs, etc. Hymns and religious lyrics. 
The autobiography of Gotz von Berlichingen. 

Period of imitation of French and English literature. Paul 
Gerhard's hymns. 

The remodelling of German poetry. Classical period usually ^7th 
reckoned from 1748. Spiritual revival under Klopstock. Criti- igth"^^" 
cal school under Herder and Lessing. Works on sculpture and Century. 
art. 

"Sturm-und-Drang" (storm and stress) period, 17 70-1 785. 

Goethe and Schiller brought literature to classical perfection. Early 19th 
Great advance in theological and historical works. Romantic Century, 
school, and love of mystic and transcendental thought and phi- 
losophy. Fine translators, such as Schlegel, Tieck, etc. 



293 



294 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



A FEW OF THE GREAT MEN OF GERMANY. 



Writers of Desideiius (Gerhard) Erasmus, Martin Luther, Melancthon, 

Reforma- Ulrich von Hutten Murner. 

tion. 

Poetry. Hans Sachs, Gellert,|,Lessing, Burger, Herder, Klopstock, 

Wieland, Komer, Voss, Goethe, Schiller, Heine, Arndt, Uhland, 
Bodenstedt, Von Wildenbruck, Fitger, Blumenthal, L'Arronge, 
Von Schonthan, Lubliner, Von Moser, Anzengruber, Von Scheffel, 
Hartmann, Geibel, Riickert. 

Leibnitz, Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Kuno Fischer. 

Baehr, W. von Humboldt, Mliller, Grimms (2). 

Schlegels (2), Tieck. 

Gesner, A. von Humboldt, Cotta, Liebig, Helmholtz. 



Philosophy. 

Philology. 

Transla- 
tion. 
Natural 
History and 
Science. 

Meta- 
physics. 

History. 

Geology. 

Geography. 

Biography. 

Art 

criticism. 
Statistics. 
Jurispru- 
dence. 

Surgery. 

Scientific 
discovery. 



Statesmen, 
Soldiers. 

Light 
Narrative 
and Fiction. 



Music. 



Vrr.hi 
tecture. 



Von Schelling, Von Hartmann, Carriere. 

Niebuhr, Bunsen, Schlosser, Gervinus, Mommsen, Von 
Ranke, Dahlmann. 

Zirkel of Leipsic, Rosenbusch of Heidelberg. 
Von Richtofen of Berlin. 
Varnhagen, Von Euse, Pertz, Strauss. 

Kugler, Burckhardt, Lubke. 

Engel, Laspeyres, Grotefend. 

Windscheit of Leipsic, Gneist of Berlin, Von Haltzendorf of 
Munich. 

Laugenbech of Berlin, Billroth of Vienna, Nussbaum of 
Munich, Scanzoni of Wurzburg, Esmarch of Kiel. 

Haeckel of Jena, scientific speculation; Bunsen and Kirch- 
hoff, the spectroscope; Czermak, the laryngoscope; Helmholtz, 
the ophthalmoscope, and valuable laws of acoustics; Koch, 
scientific discoveries in medicine; Virchow, anthropologist and 
physiologist. 

Scharnhorst, Von Stein, Bliicher, Gneisenau, Emperor William 
I., Von Bismarck, Von Roon, Von Moltke. 

Paul Lindau, Gustav Freytag, Spielhagen, Paul Heyse, Ebers, 
Ossip Schubin, Dahn, Auerbach, Fritz Renter, Wolff, Hack- 
lander, Keller, Gotthelf, Marlitt, Lewald, Werner, Wildemuth, 
Von Franfois, Carmen Sylva. 

Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Herz, 
Wagner, Von Biilow, Raflf Abt, Kucken, Rubenstein, Moscheles, 
Liszt, Czerny, Heller, Hummel, Spindler, Hiller, Schulhoff, 
Franz, Jadassohn, Reinecke, Brahms, Barziel, Bruch, Becker, 
Kichner, Kiel, Herzogenberg, Drasecke, Nicode, Vierling, Ge- 
rusheim, Hofmann, Strauss, Bungert, Moszkowski. 

V m Steinbach (built dome of Strasburg), Von Riel (built 
dome of Koln), Schinkel, Stiiler, Strack, Klenze, Von Gartner, 
Neureuther, Semper, Hansen, Ferstel, Schmidt. 



SOME INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 295 

Krafft, Jorg Syrlin, Veit Stosz, Peter Fischer, Schliiter, Donner, Sculpture. 
Dannecker, Thorwaldsen, Schadow, Rauch, Rietschel, Drake, 
Schwanthaler. 

Schongauer, Wolgemut, Griinewald, Albrecht Diirer, Burck- Painting, 
mair, Behams (2), Cranachs (2), Holbeins (2), Hals, Angelica 
Kauflfmann, Dietrich, Overbeck, Kneller, Cornelius, Schnorr, 
Kaulbach, Lessing, Schadow, Stilke, Steinbriick, Schroter, Hiibne, 
Jordan, Magnus, Menzel, Angely, Funk, Makart, Piloty, De- 
fregger, Werner. 



NECROLOGY (1873-1903). 

1873 April 18. — Baron von Liebig, founder of organic chemistry. 
1878 December 14. — Princess Alice of Hesse-Darmstadt, 

daughter of Queen Victoria. 
1883 February 13. — Richard Wagner, the most original com- 
poser of opera of the nineteenth century. 
1886 May 23. — Leopold von Ranke, one of Germany's greatest 
historians. 
July 21. — Karl von Piloty, the famous artist. 
July 31. — Franz Liszt, greatest of pianists. 

1890 January 11. — Dowager Empress Augusta. 
December 27. — ^Heinrich Schliemann, the archaeologist. 

189 1 April 24. — Field Marshal Hellmuth von Moltke. 
September 8. — Hermann Helmholz, the distinguished 

scientist, inventor of the ophthalmoscope. 
1898 July 30. — Baron Otto von Bismarck-Schonhausen. 

1900 August 25. — Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, the most 

brilliant German philosopher since Schopenhauer. 

1901 July 5. — Prince von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst. 
August =;. — Dowager Empress Friedrich. 
November 22. — Friedrich Krupp, head of the great iron 

works at Essen. 

1902 September 6. — Professor Rudolph Virchov/, of the Uni- 

versity of Berlin. 
December 2. — Field Marshal Count von Blumenthal. 



SOME INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 

Water-marks are produced by a wire bent into the shape of Water- 
the required letter or device, and sewed to the surface of the marks, 
mould; it has the effect of making the paper thinner in those 
places. Earliest water-mark is a wide circle with a cross on it, 
1301. P and Y are the initials of Philip the Good, Duke of Bur- 
gundy, and Isabella his wife. Other symbols are the unicorn, 
anchor, fleur-de-lys, which are seen on foolscap paper; the post- 
man's horn means the post paper, 1370. 



296 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



Stables. 

Singing. 
Wigs. 
Patches. 
Mous- 
taches. 



Rococo. 

Theatrical 
statues. 

Post-office. 



Printing. 



Latin Bible 

Glass ' 
windows. 



Paving- 
stones. 

Chimneys. 

Wooden 

buildings. 

Fountains. 

Fire 
brigades. 



Stables under houses were universal in the middle ages, and 
to enter the house people had to ascend steps. 

School singing was introduced by Luther. 

Powdered wigs and patches were fashionable in the eighteenth 
century. Moustaches also came in at this time. When the 
Duchess of Gonzaga (niece of Louis XIV.) was shown the picture 
of her future husband, Ladislas, King of Poland, she cried, " But 
he is deformed; he has two rats' tails on his upper Hp ". 

Rococo comes from "roche," and "coquille" from the archi- 
tectural decorations of the time. 

Theatrical statues were introduced in the fifteenth century. 
They were covered over with tinfoil, and washed over with color 
to represent life and prevent their being spoiled. 

The post office was introduced into Germany in the reign of 
Maximilian I., 15 16. First post went from Vienna to Brussels, 
under the conduct of the Count of Thurn and Taxis, whose 
successors later on received the title of "imperial postmaster," 
and held it till the year 1866. 

Printing is said to have been used by the Chinese many years 
before the Christian era. Printing in Germany originated with 
picture blocks used by Koster of Haarlem, 1438. John Guten- 
berg invented movable types, 1450, but being too poor to cast them, 
he had recourse to Peter Schoffer, a copyist, and Fust (or Faust) 
of Mainz, a goldsmith. They treated Gutenberg badly, turned 
him out of their partnership, and became wealthy on the produce 
of Gutenberg's invention, which by its rapidity of producing 
books appeared to be the work of the Evil One, and gave rise to 
the well-known story of Faust. 

The earliest edition of the Latin Bible was begun by Gutenberg 
in 1450. 

Glass windows were introduced into Germany at the end of 
the fourteenth century. In the town hall at Zurich in 1402 the 
windows were still filled with oiled linen. 

Paving-stones came in for use on streets in the fifteenth 
century. 

Chimneys came in at the end of the fourteenth century. 

Wooden buildings were almost universal until the end of the 
fourteenth century. Stone before that time was only used for 
castles and walls. 

The first fountain was built at Ziirich in 1450. 

A fire brigade was estabUshed at Frankfort in 1439. ^^^ 
first fire engine was at Augsburg in 15 18. 

Nuremberg is the most perfect specimen of a mediaeval town. 



LIFE IN GERMANY DURING THE REFORMATION. 

Jesuits and Capuchins. — ^Directly after the Reformation Rome 
strove with all her might to recover her lost power, and her chief 
instruments in this work were the orders of Jesuits and Capu- 
chins. Their idea was to educate the rising generations, and 



GERMAN LIFE DURING REFORMATION. 297 

imbue them with the old doctrines, but in Germany their influence 
was comparatively slight. 

The Reformed Clergy were split up into many divisions, the 
interests of the Lutherans and Calvinists being greatly opposed 
to each other. The mass of the people still clung to Luther's 
translation of the Bible. 

Courts of Law. — Up to this time there existed a secret tribunal 
called " Vehmgericht," which was very powerful. It was founded 
by Engelbert, Archbishop of Cologne, and in the fourteenth cen- 
tury numbered 100,000 members. If it passed sentence of death, 
the victim was found dead with a dagger marked S.S.G.G. (stick, 
stone, grass, groan) sticking in his heart. This fell into disuse 
in the sixteenth century, but secrecy was still necessary to protect 
the judges from any attempt at revenge. Gradually the German 
law was so despised that the old Roman law, which had never 
quite died out, became general. 

Torture or Punishment. — This system prevailed to a terrible 
extent, and every town had instruments for the practice of vari- 
ous and ingenious tortures. Clergy used to be hung up in iron 
cages, and left to starve, since it was illegal for a layman to bring 
a priest to justice. 

Soldiers and Arms. — The invention of gunpowder had a great 
effect upon the art of war in Germany, as in other countries. 
Gustavus Adolphus replaced the heavy arquebus by the musket, 
and was the first to use light artillery. He made great use of 
dragoons without armor, and carrying carabines. 

The Burghers. — In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 
the cities, which were united by the Hanseatic League, became 
very powerful, but they began to decline during the Reformation, 
and were nearly destroyed in the Thirty Years' War, when the 
spirit of government became more aristocratic. Bremen, Lii- 
beck, and Hamburg were the only towns which remained free. 
The German burghers had grown luxurious, and so had allowed 
the more enterprising English and Dutch to draw away their 
commerce. 

Houses. — There still remain in the older quarters of German 
cities specimens of the tall, narrow, gloomy houses, built in the 
time of the Reformation (ex. Nuremberg). But many changes 
for the better were made at this time. The rich citizens built 
schools, libraries, and hospitals for the use of the poor, and in 
every city there was a Jews' quarter, into which they were locked 
at dusk. 

The Peasantry in Eastern Germany were in a very different 
position to those of the West. Though they had not so much 
personal freedom, yet they were much less heavily taxed. In 
the western states every change in a peasant's family, such as a 
birth, marriage, or death, had its heavy tax which must be paid. 
His labor also, and that of his dependents, had to be at his lord's 
disposal at certain seasons. The rent from the earliest times was 
paid in kind. 



298 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



The Universities. — Before the Reformation nearly all the 
universities were under the rule of the Franciscans and Domin- 
icans, and later on of the Jesuits. After that time, however, 
those of the reformed religion were placed at first in the hands 
of Protestant clergy, and afterwards of the lav^yers and coun- 
sellors. The professors were paid by the State. Classical 
studies were encouraged as giving a key to the right interpreta- 
tion of the Bible, and as a natural result many eminent critics and 
grammarians arose. 

Alchemy and Witchcraft. — The knowledge of these arts was 
spread by "The Society of Rosicrucians," founded in Swabia 
by Valentin Andrea, and was believed in to an absurd degree. 
Astrology and palmistry afforded a most profitable trade. The 
"elixir of life" and the "philosopher's stone" or "road to 
wealth" were eagerly sought for. A Dominican monk named 
Sprenger obtained a papal bull against witchcraft, and declared 
with pride that he had burned 100 old women. 

The Arts. — The best poems after the Reformation are satires, 
but towards the close of the sixteenth century these grew very 
coarse. The drama of the day was greatly affected by religion 
and politics, and one of the most noted writers was Luther's 
friend Hans Sachs, the cobbler of Nuremberg. In 1628 the first 
German opera, "Daphne," was composed by Schutz. In the 
sixteenth century the German school of painting was formed, the 
chief masters being Hans Holbein and Albrecht Durer. The art 
of engraving was much improved at this time, but that of archi- 
tecture declined. A great advance was made in music, especially 
sacred music. 

KNIGHTHOOD. 



Infantry. 



Heraldry 
by Charle- 
magne, 
800. 

Coats of 
Arms. 



Cavalry. 



The German armies of old time were almost entirely com- 
posed of infantry; the few riders were equipped in armor, and 
carried lance and sword. As their faces were covered with a 
vizor all looked alike. To distinguish them, each bore on shield 
and helmet a device — such as a bear, lion, or cock — with col- 
ored bands on the helmet or arm. Sons bore the device of their 
fathers, and thus began "family coats of arms". To know and 
remember all these different blazonings became a science pro- 
fessed by men called heralds. Such marks of honor were used 
in early ages. The Phrygians had a sow; the Thracians, Mars; 
the Romans, an eagle; the Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull; 
the Saxons, a horse; the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards 
the fleur-de-lys, adopted by Clovis as a heaven-sent flower on his 
vow to become a Christian at the battle of Koln, 496. 

In the wild invasions of the Huns, the Germans had to en- 
counter horsemen, and to do this successfully they increased the 
number of riders, so that the principal part of the German army 
became cavalry. The accoutrements were very costly, but all 
who could by any means afford it endeavored to become riders. 



CRUSADES. 299 

At the first all riders were knights (Ritter), but it is to Heinrich 
the Fowler that we owe the institution of the Order of Knighthood, 
whose arms were blessed with a solemn service of consecration 
after a certain period of probation. 

The knights called themselves by the name of the estate to Origin ot 
which they belonged — e.g., if the estate were called "Biilow," titles, 
the knight would be "von Biilow". The sons of the knights 
were generally brought up to their father's profession. As early 
as seven years old, a boy would be placed with some knight of 
renown to serve him as a squire; and during the years of service "Squire." 
he was exercised in all manly sports, and learnt the various kinds 
of work considered necessary to fit him for his future career, 
which included — amongst many things — waiting on his lord at 
table, and polishing his armor, etc. 

Later on sacred orders of knighthood were instituted. 

CRUSADES. 

I. 1095-9. Preached by Peter the Hermit. Ended by the 
Christians taking Jerusalem and making Godfrey de Bouillon 
king. 

II. 1 146. Preached by St. Bernard. Headed by Emperor 
Conrad III. and Louis VII. of France. Crusaders defeated. 
Jerusalem lost, 1187, to Saladin. 

III. 1 188. Emperor Frederic Barbarossa, etc., joined by 
Philippe II. (Auguste) of France and Richard I. of England in 
1 190. Glorious but fruitless war against Saladin, "Salah ed- 
Din, " Saracen Soldan of Egypt and Syria. 

IV. 1 195. Emperor Heinrich VI. successful till his death 
in 1197. 

V. 1 198. Proclaimed by Innocent III. Baldwin, Count of 
Flanders, attacked the Greeks and took Constantinople in 1203. 

VI. 12 16. In 1229 Emperor Frederic II. obtained posses- 
sion of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In 1240 Richard, 
Earl of Cornwall, arrived in Palestine, but soon departed. 

VII. 1248. Louis IX. (Saint) was defeated and taken 
prisoner at Mansourah, 1250. Released by ransom. Truce of 
ten years. 

VIII. 1270. St. Louis (IX.) died of a contagious illness at 
Carthage in Africa. Prince Edward (Edward I.) of England 
was at Acre, 1271. In 1291 the Saracen Soldan took Acre and 
drove the Christians out of Syria. 



INDEX. 



Aachen, 30, 34, 41, 70, 91 

Aar, 91 

Aargau, 91 

Abbots, 33 

Abderrahman, 32 

Academy, 30 

Acre, 188 

Adalbert (Archbp.), 47 

Adelheid, 42 

Adige, 211 

Adolf (Nassau), 95 

Adolphus or Ataulphus, 16 

Adolphus Frederic of Holstein 

Gottorp, 171 
Adrian IV., Pope. (Nicholas 

Breakspear), 60, 61 
Adriatic, 15, 19 
Africa, 2 

Agnes (Empress), 47 
Agnes of Swabia, 57 
Aigri or Egeri, 96 
Aix-la-Chapelle, 30, 70 

Alani, 18 
Alaric, 15, 16 

Alba, 82 

Albert, Archduke of Austria, 238 

Albert "the Bear" of Branden- 
burg, 57, 187, 189 

Albert, Duke of Brandenburg, 128, 
131, 192 

Albert III. (Elector) of Prussia, 192 

Albertine line, 108, 142 

Albrecht I. Hapsburg, 93, 95 

Albrecht II. Austria, 106 

Alcuin, 29 

Alemanni, 2, 14, 23, 24 

Alessandria, 62 

Alexander III. (Pope), 6x 



Alexander I. of Russia, 213, 216 

Alexius, 123 

Algiers, 120, 121 

Alphonso of Castile, 77 

Alps, 2, 49, 59, 116, 211 

Alsace, 35, 90, 91, 108, 152, 242 

Alsace-Lorraine, 249 

Alva, 134, 142 

Amurath I., 120 

Ambrose (St.), 61 

Ambrosian Liturgy, 30 

America, 107, 114, 137, 158, 176, 

184, 201, 226 
Amiens, 244 
Ancona, 69 
Andalusia, 21 
Angles, 3, 21 
Angilbert, 30 
Anglo-German Convention, 260 

263 
Anjou, 71, 79 

Anjouvins, 84 

Anne of Prussia, 192 

Anne of Bohemia, 103 

Anne. Hungary, 112 

Antipopes, 50, 62 

Anson, 175 

Apennines, 49, 77 

Apulia, 66 

Aquila, 82 

Aquileia, 19 

Arabia, 24 

Arabs, Arabians, 24, 28, 32, 77, 
87, 89 

Aragon, 78, 84, 114, 161 

Arcadius (Emp.), 16 

Architecture, 30, 89 

Areola, 211 

Arian Christians, 15, 21 

Armed Neutrality, 205 
301 



302 



INDEX. 



Armagnacs, io6 

Arnaud de Villeneuve, 89 

Arnold of Brescia, 60 

Arnold von Winkelried, 100 

Arnulf or Arnoul (Emp.), 36 

Arnulf of Bavaria, 41 

Art, 15, 89, 155 

Arthur, King, 89 

Artois, 108 

Aryan race, i 

Asia, 187 

Asia Minor, 14, 64 

Asti, 16 

Asturias, 34 

Ataulphus, 16. (See Adolphus) 

Athelstan, 41 

Attigny sur I'Aisne, 7,^ 

Attila, 18, 19, 73, 89, 263 

Auerstadt, 215 

Augsburg, 47, 87, 112, 124, 129, 

13I' 134, 136, 144, 157 
Augustus (Emp. of Rome), 11, 12 
Augustus II. Poland, 163, 168, 

181 
Augustus III. Poland, 165, 171, 

173' 181 
Augustulus, Romulus, 20 
Augustine, 21 
Aurelle de Paladines, 244 
Austerlitz, 213, 214, 215 
Austracia, 32 
Austria, 29, 57, 58, 91 to 184, 199 

to 239 
Austro-Hungarian Empire, 180 
Avars, 2, 22, 28, 29, 33, 34 
Azof, 157 



B. 



Babenberg, 42, 93 
Bacon, Roger, 88 
Baden, 214, 241, 247 
Baden (Archduchess of), 245 
Balkan Provinces, 87, 229 
Ballenstadt. (See Albert the 

Bear) 
Baltic Canal, 262 
Baltic Sea, 4, 15, 188, 189 
Ban (of the Church), 48, 50, 63, 

89 



Ban (of the Empire), 127 
Baptism, 31, 32, 33 
Barbarians, 4, 10 
Barbarossa. (See Frederic) 
Barbarossa, 120 
Baron von Ketteler, 262 
Bartholomew (St.), 108 
Basel (Basle), 122 
Batavian Republic, 217 
Battle of Sedan, 246 
Battle of the Nations, 222 
Bautzen, 222 

Bavaria, 28, 33, 57-59, 63, 64, 91, 
108, 153, 178, 214, 218,238,241, 

247. ^^ 
Bavarians, 28 
Bayard, 116 

Bazaine (Gen.), 242, 243 
Beatrice of Burgundy, 63 
Beatrice of Provence, 79 
Beatus (Saint), 25 
Beauharnais, Josephine, 218, 226 
Beauharnais, Eugene, 214 
Beauharnais, Hortense, 226 
Beaumont, 243 
Beer, 5 

Begging friars, 74, 103 
Belfort, 244 
Belgium, 2, 3, 212, 231 
Belgrade, 119, 157 
Belle Alliance, 225 
Bellevue, 243 
Benedek (Marshal), 238 
Benedetti, 240 
Benedict IX. (Pope), 43 
Benedict XIII. (Pope), 103 
Benedict XIV. (Pope), 134 
Benedictine Order, 25 
Benevento, 33, 79 
Beningsen, 216 
Berenger of Tours, 90 
Beresina, 220 
Berg (Duke of), 214 
Berlin, 86, 153, 188, 195, 205, 215, 

233, 241, 245, 248, 260 
Berlin Congress, 252 
Berlin Decree, 205, 215, 217 
Bernard (St.) of Clairvaux, 58 
Bernard Ascanius, 64 
Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, 152 



INDEX. 



303 



Bernadotte, 217, 221 

Berne, 94 

Berri (De), 228 

Bertha of Susa, 48 

Berthier (Gen.), 214 

Bicocca, 116 

Bishoprics, 30, 152, 153 

Bingen on the Rhine, 50 

Bipont. (See Deux Fonts) 

Bismarck, 49, 236 to end 

Bison's horns, 9 

Bittenfeld (Gen. von), 238 

Black Sea, 15 

Black Forest, 23, 211 

Black Death, 99 

Blenheim, 161 

Blockade, 215, 216 

Bliicher, 215, 221, 224, 225 

Bobbio, 25 

Boden-See, 104 

Bohemia, 46, 59, 90, 93, 98, 99, 

100, etc., 114, 120, 129, 131, 139, 

142, 143 to 145, 169, 233, 238 
Bohemians, 3 
Boleslas V., 188 
Bologna, 29, 75, 118 
Bondmen, 8 
Boniface (St.), 25 
Borussi, 187, 188 
Boscawen, 175 
Bouillon (Godfrey de), 49 
Bourbaki, 244 
Bourbon, 116, 117, 167 
Bouvines, 70 
Boxer Movement, 262 
Braganza, 216 
Brandenburg, 3, 40, 57, 98, 102, 

108, 144, 149, 153, 157, 159, 187 

to 192. 
Brandy, 89 
Branny bor, 40 
Braunaw, 139 

Braunschweig. (See Brunswick.) 
Brazil, 112 

Brazilian Territory, 264 
Breifach, 244 
Breissach, 152 
Breitenfeld, 149 
Bremen, 47, 152, 205, 219, 259 
Brescia (Arnold von), 60 



Brescia, 72, 95 

Breslau, 73, 169, 174, 200 

Brindisi, 71 

Britain, 3, 21 

Brittany, 2 

British Isles, 34 

Brunswick, 55, 64, 70, 86, 174, 

203, 216 
Brussels, in 
Bulgaria, 183 
Bulgarians, 2 
Bull, 74 

Bull, Golden, 98 
Bull, Papal, 69, 125 
Bundesrath, 248, 259 
Buonaparte, Napoleon, 158, 205 to 

227 
Buonaparte, Joseph, 214, 217 
Buonaparte, Louis, 214, 217, 219 
Buonaparte, Caroline, 214 
Buonaparte, Jerome, 216, 226 
Buonaparte, Lucien, 225, 226 
Burgundii, 2 
Burgundy, 2, 35, 43, 59, 85, no, 

114, 118 
Burgundians, 2, 16 
Biiren, Frederic von, 49, 57 
Busento, R., 16 
Byzantine Empire, 22 
Byzantium, 14 



Cadiz, 170 

Cffisar Augustus (Charlemagne), 

34 
Caesar, Julius, n 

Cairo, 74 

Cajetano, 112, 124 

Caleph River. (See Cydnus), 64 

CaHph. (See K.), 32 

CaHxtus II. (Pope), 53 

Calixtins, 105 

Calmuck Tartars, 18 

Calvin, 131, 133 

Cambrai, 118 

Campo Formio, 212 

Canada, 175 

Canal, 31 



304 



INDEX. 



Canal, Frederic William, 194 

Canal, The Kaiser Wilhelm, 262 

Canossa, 49, 57 

Capua, 76 

Cape of Good Hope, 107 

Capitulation of Paris, 244 

Carbonari, 228 

Cardinals, 46, 73 

Carinthia, 93, 108, 114, 131, 136 

Carlovingians, 25, 26 

Carloman. (See Karlomann) 

Carlos (Don), 164 

Carlstadt, 125, 127 

Carniola, 108 

Caroccio, 61, 63, 72 

Carolo Magno. (See Charle- 
magne) 

Carpathians, 4, 189 

Carthage, 19, 21 

Casimir of Poland, 192 

Castiglione, 211 

Castile, 77, 108, 114, 161 

Catherine von Bora, 128 

Catherine de Medici, 108 

Catherine II. Russia, 158, 175 
to 184, 204 

Catholic League, 144, 145, 149 

Caucasian race, i 

Celibacy of the clergy, 45, 90 

Celts. (See Kelts) 

Chalons, 19 

Chanzy, 244 

Emperors of Germany — 

Charlemagne (Charles I.), 20, 

28 to 36, 89, no 
Charles II. (the Bald), 35 
Charles III. (le Gros), 36 
Charles IV. (Luxemburg), 

97, 98, 99, 189, 190 
Charles V., 112 to 137 
Charles VI., 162 to 165, 

196 
Charles VII. 168, 178, 199, 
200 

Charles (Archduke of Austria), 
162, 211, 212, 218 

Charles of Anjou, 79, 80, 82, 

83, 84 
Charles the Lame, of Anjou, 84 
Charles X. Sweden, 179 



Charles XII. Sweden, 158 

Charles VI. France, 106 ^ 

Charles IX. France, 108 ■ 

Charles the Bold. Burgundy, 107, 
no 

Charles II. England, 194 

Charles Edward (Pretender), 169 

Charles of Lorraine, 156 

Charles II. Spain, 160 

Charles Emmanuel. Sardinia, 
166 

Charles Theodore (Elector Pala- 
tine), 178 

Charles Gustavus (Count Pala- 
tine), 179 

Charles M artel, 24 

Charlottenburg, 206 

Charter of Liberty, 139, 145 

Chatti (or Catti), 3 

Chereddin, 120 

Cherusci, 3, 11 

Childeric III., 25 

China, Germans in, 262 

Chinese, 18, 87, 88 

Chinese Wall, 18 

Chivalry (Orders), 88 

Christianity preached, 2, 25, 26, 
31, 41, 42, 187 

Christian IV. Denmark, 143, 
145, 146, 152 

Christian IX., 237 

Christian of Brunswick (Gen.), 

Christina. Sweden, 179 
Christopher Columbus, 107 
Cimbri, 10, 11 
Circles, in 

Cisalpine Republic, 212 
Civilization-battle, 250 
Clairvaux, 58 
Claude of Turin, 90 
Clement of Ireland, 30 
Clement III. (Pope), 50 
Clement IV. (Pope), 82 
Clement VI. (Pope), 97 
Clement VII. (Pope), ny 
Cleves (Duchy of), 194 
Clotilde, 23 
Clovis, 17, 23 
Cluny, 45 



INDEX. 



305 



Coalition •{ 



ist, 203, 211 

2d, 212 

3d, 213 

4th, 215 

5th, 218 

6th, 221 
Code of nations, 153 
Code of laws, 73 
Code Napoleon, 226 
Coeur de Lion, Richard. (See 

Richard) 
Cohort of death, 63 
Colberg (Gen.), 215 
College of Cardinals, 46 
Colmar, 35 

Cologne. (See Koln) 
Colonial Expansion, 263 
Columba (St.), 25 
Community, 8 
Comte de la Marche, 33 
Concordat of Worms, 53, 55 
Concordat with Pope (1821), 207 
Conde (Prince de), 152, 213 
Confession of Augsburg, 129, 130, 

Confederation (Swiss), 106 
Confederation (Helvetic), 217 
Confederation of the Rhine, 214, 

231 
Confederation (Germanic), 230, 

236, 237, 239 
Confederation (North German), 

239, 241 
Congress of Vienna, 207, 224, 227, 

230 
Conrad I. (Emperor), 38, 57 
Conrad II. (Emperor), 43, 57 
Conrad III. (Emperor), 57, 58, 64, 

86 
Conrad IV. (Emperor), 73 to 77 
Conrad (Count Palatine), 39 
Conrad of Hohenstaufen, 54, 55 
Conrad, son of Heinrich IV., 50 
Conradino, 76, 77, 80 to 83 
Constable of Bourbon, 116 
Constance (Treaty of), 63 
Constanza the Nun, 64, 66, 67, 68, 

70 
Constanza, sister of Manfred, 79, 

83 



Constantine the Great, 14, 104 
Constantinople, 14, 16, 44, 120, 

182, 215 
Constitution Adopted, 248 
Continental Blockade, 215, 216 
Convention of Kloster-Seven, 173, 

174 
Copenhagen, 86 
Cordova, 32 

Cornwall (Richard of), 77 
Coronation of Emperor William 

I., 247 
Corporal Violet, 224 
Corsica, 28 
Corsican, 211, 213 
Corte Nuova, 72 
Cossacks, 220 
Cotta, 123 

Council (Frankfort, 794), 30 
Council (Lateran, 1123), 53 
Council (Rome, 1237), 72 
Council (Constance, 1414), 104, 

122, 125 
Council (Basel, 1433), 105 
Council (Augsburg, 1530), 129 
Council (Trent, 1545), 132, i34 
Council (Ratisbon, 1629), 146 
Count Palatine, 29, 39, 68, 98 

loi, 103, 179 
Count Jordano, 66 
Count Raymond of Toulouse, 79 
Count Adolf of Nassau, 95 
Count Waldersee, 263 
Count Zrinyi, 138 
County, 29 
Courcelles, 243 
Courland, 131, 158 
Cracow, 73 
Cranmer, 131 
Crecy, 98 
Crediton, 25 
Crespy, 119, 132 
Crimea, 182, 183, 191 
Croats, 168 
Crusade, 2d, 58 
Crusade, 3d, 64 
Crusade, 6th, 71, 188 
Crusade, 7th, 74 
Crusades, influence of, 87 
Crusading Emperor, 72 



3o6 



INDEX. 



Customs Union, 232, 259 
Custozza, 238 
Cydnus, 64 
Czechs, 103, 168 

D. 

Dacian Goths, 14 
Dalmatia, 90, 212, 213 
Danes, 28, 32, 86, 237 
Danish period, 143, 146 
Danube, 2, 4, 15, 21, 31, 149, 156, 

166, 180, 211, 218 
Danubian Principalities, 180 
Danzig, 86, 163, 164, 201 
David, 30 

Dead languages, 107 
Denmark, 3, 37, 59, 85, 142, 231, 

237 
Desiderius of Lombardy, 28, 30, 

32 
Dessauer, 200 

Deux Fonts (Duke of), 178, 179 
Devereux, 151 
Diet of Mainz, 50 
Diet (Hungarian), 168 
Diet (German), 60, 107, 108, 113, 

126, 130, 228, 230, 231, 234 
Diet of Worms, 126 
Diet of Spires, 1 29 
Diet of Augsburg (1519), 112 
Diet of Augsburg (1548), 134 
Diet of Augsburg (1555), 136 
Districts, 8 
Dnieper, 15 
Don, 19 
Donchery, 243 
Donar or Thor, 6 
Double-headed Eagle, 34 
Dresden, 108, 172, 200, 234 
Drusus, II 
Duchies, 29, 237 
Due d'Enghien, 213 
Duke of Bavaria, ^^, 39 
Dutch Republic, 142 

E. 

East Prussia, 192 
Eberhard, 38, 41 
Ebro, 32 
Eccelino III., 72, 75 



Ecclesiastical reserve, 136 

Eck (Doctor), 125 ^, 

Edict of Nantes, 157 J 

Edict of Toleration, 177 '_ ; if 

Edith (Empress), 41 ^ • 

Edmund I. (Crouchback), 78 

Edmund, 41 

Edward VI. of England, 131 

Eger, 151 

Egeri, 96 

Eginhard, 30 

Egypt, 212 

Ehresburg, 31 

Eisenach, 123, 127 

Eleanor of Prussia, 192 

Eisleben, 122, 132 

Elba, 223 

Elbe, II, 40, 55, 86, 133, 146, 187, 

216 
Elector of Brandenburg, 189, 190, 

192 
Elector of Koln, 161 
Elector of Hesse, 228 
Electors of Germany, 93, 97, 98, 

139 
Electors of Saxony, 113, 123, 124, 
127, 133, 149, 165, 171, 172, 

173. 175 
Elector of Bavaria, 161, 165, 166, 

167 
Elizabeth of Austria, 97 
Elizabeth of Bohemia, 98 
Elizabeth of England, 142 
Elizabeth of Parma, 166 
Elizabeth of Russia, 171, 174, 175, 

181, 201 
Elster, 222 
Emirs, 32 

Empire (East), 14, 15, 16 et seq. 
Empire (West), 14, 15, 16, 20 et 

seq. 
Empress Frederic, 255 
Ems, 240 

Enghien (Due de), 213 
England, 64, 70, 78, 157, 162, 166, 

194, 200, 215, 243 
English Protestant Church, 142 
English Revolution, 142 
Enzio the Handsome, 72, 75 
Erasmus, 122 






INDEX. 



307 



Erfurt, 87, 123 

Ermengarde (Irmgard), 35 

Ernestine Line, 108, 142 

Estramadura, 137 

Etzel or Attila, 18 

Eudoxia, 19 

Eugene of Savoy|.(Prince), 156, 

161, 165 
Eugene Beauharnais, 214 
Excommunication, 48, 50, 63, 71, 

etc., 217 
Exarchate of Ravenna, 25 
Eylau, 206, 216 

Ezzilino of Romano, 72, 75, 78 
Exile, 37 

F. 

Falk Law, 250 

Farming, 30 

Faidherbe (Gen.), 244 

Farel, 131 

Federal Council, 248 

Fehrbillen, 194 

Feminist Movement, 264 

Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, 

112, 114 
Ferdinand I. (Emperor), 112, 114, 

119, 129, 130, 134, 138 
Ferdinand 11. (Emperor), 140, 143, 

144, 145, 146, 149, 151 
Ferdinand III. (Emperor), 143, 

154 
Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, 

234 
Ferrara, 212 
Feudal System, 29, 52, 88, 141, 

177 
Field of Falsehood, 35 
Field of the Cloth of Gold, 115 
Fieschi (Pope), 73 
Finland, 231 
Fist-right, 43' III 
Flanders, 79, 203 
Fleury, 163, 168 
Florence, 78, 118, 122 
Fontainebleau, 223 
Fontenoy, 169 
Foulke of Anjou, 71 
"Fowler," Heinrich the. (See 

Heinrich) 



France, 23, 37, 131 
Emperors — 

Francis I. of Lorraine, 164, 

167, 169, 200 
Francis II., 180, 205. (See 
Francis I. of Austria), 211, 
213, 214, 227, 231 
Francis Joseph, Emperor of 

Austria, 234, 239 
Francis I. of Austria, 180, 
184, 205, 214, 218, 223 
Fran9ois I. of France, 113 to 119, 

130. 135 
Franz Steffan. (See Francis I. of 

Lorraine) 
Franche Comte, 108, 137 
Franco-Prussian War, 240, 249,256 
Franconia, 38, 77, 85, 108, 191 
Franconian Dynasty, 43 to 54 
Franks, 2, 3, 14, 17, 19, 21 et seq. 
Frankfort, 58, 86, 97, 167, 168, 

230, 234, 239, 244 
Freeborn, 8 
Freedmen, 8, 9 
Freemasons, 89 

Emperors of Germany — 

Frederic I., Barbarossa, 63 

to 65, 95, 188 
Frederic II., 68 to 75, 83 
Frederic III. ( ?), Handsome, 

Rival Emperor, 95, 96, 97 
Frederic III. or IV., Pacific, 

106 to no 
Frederic William (Crown 

Prince), 238, 242 
Frederic III., New Empire, 

254 
William I., 246, 247, 254 
Wilham II, 258, 
Electors of Prussia (Branden- 
burg)— 
Frederic I. of Niiremberg, 

102, 108, 190, 192 
Frederic II., 192 
Frederic III., 192, 196 
Frederic William (the Great 

Elector), 192 to 195, 201 
Kings of Prussia — 

Frederic I., 162, 192, 196, 201 
Frederic William I., 196 



308 



INDEX. 



Frederic II. (the Great), 158, 

165 to 183, 197, 203 
Frederic William II., 183, 

202 to 204 
Frederic William III., 204 to 

207, 221 
Frederic William IV., 207, 

233' 234, 235 
William, 246, 247, 248 
Frederic von Btiren, 49, 57 
Frederic of Hohenstaufen, 54, 55, 

58 
Frederic of Austria, 75 
Frederic of Baden, 81, 82 
Frederic of Brunswick, loi 
Frederic, Count of Niiremberg, 96 
Frederic of Saxony (the Wise), 

113, 123, 124, 128 
Frederic V., Elector Palatine, 143, 

144 
Frederic Augustus, Saxony, 221, 

222 
Frederic VIT. of Denmark, 237 
Frederic of Augustenburg, 237 
Frederic Charles, Prince, 238, 242 
Freya, 6 
Frejus, 224 

French Language, 36, 155 
French Revolution, 158, 180, 203, 

233 
French Period, 143 
French Republic, 158, 228, 244 
Frenois, 243 
Friedland (Battle), 206 
Friedland, Duke of, 146, 147, 216 
Friesland, 26, 193 
Fridolin of Seckingen, 25 
Frisia, 25 
Frisians, 3, 26 
"Fritz," 201, 242, 245 
Fulda, 26, 29 
Fiirst, 95 



G. 



Gaisberg, 242 
Galetta, 121 
Galicia, 159, 18^ 
Gall, St., 25, 29 
Garigliano, 77 
Gascons, 33 



Gaul, 2, 3, 4 

Geisa, 42 

Geismar, Oak of, 26 

Geneva, 131, 158 

Genghis Khan, 73 

Genoa, 61, 72, 73, 85, 231 

Genoese Republic, 212 

Genseric, 19, 21 

Geoff roi of Anjou, 54 j, 

Georg, Junker, 127 ^ 

George William, Elect, of Prussia, 

192 
George Podiebrad, 106 
George II., England, 166, 174 
George III., England, 174 
Georges von Freundsberg (Gen.), 

118, 126 
Gepidae, 3, 15 
Gera, 49 

General Council, 74 - 

German Colonization, 253 ^ 

German Diet, 60, 107, 113, 126, "' 

130, 228, 234 
German Empire, 247, 256, 265 
Germany's Progress, 264 
Gessler, 95 
Ghent, 114, 224 
Ghibellines, 56 to 58, 61, 69, 72, 

78 to 85 
Gibraltar, 162 
Giselbert of Lorraine, 41 
Godfrey of Bouillon, 49 
Godoy, 240 
Golden Bull, 98 
Gordon, 151 
Goths, 2, 14, 15, 16 
Gothic Kingdom, 15, 16, 19, etc. 
Gotteschalk, 90 
Graf, 29 

Grand Duke of Baden, 248 
Grandenz, 215 
Grandella, 79 
Gravelotte, 243 
Great Britain, 161, 215 
Great Chancellor, 246 
Great Schism, 132, 134 
Greeks, i, 28, 33, 87, 182 
Gregorian Chants, 30 
Gregory 11. (Pope), 26 
Gregory VI. (Pope), 43 



INDEX. 



309 



Gregory VII. (Pope, Hildebrand), 

45 to 50, 68 
Gregory IX. (Pope), 71, 72, 73 
Gregory X. (Pope), 91 
Gregory XII. (Pope), 103 
Greifswald, 86 
Grisons, 106 
Grodno, 184 

Guelph, 35, 50 to 74, 78, 85 
Guiscard (Robert), 48, 50 
Guise (Duke of), 136 
Gunpowder, 88, 107 
Gustavus Vasa, 131, 163 
Gustavus Adolphus, 143, 148 to 

152, 179, 194 
Gutenstein, 97 
Guy de Lusignan, 188 

H. 

Habichtsburg, or Hapsburg, 91 
Hague Tribunal, 264 
Halberstadt, 194 
Hall of Mirrors, 247 
Hamitic Race, i 
Hamburg, 86, 219, 259 
Handel-Verdindung. (See Han- 

seatic League) 
Hanno, Archbishop, 47 
Hanover, 3, 174, 205, 216, 219, 

238, 239 
Hanse Towns, 86 
Hanseatic League, 86, 87, 100, 259 
Hapsburg, 91 
Hapsburg, Germany, 91 to 184, 

218 
Hapsburg, Spain, 114 to 137, 141, 

142, 160 to 162 
Haroun Alraschid, 18 
Harzburg, 48, 49 
Haspinger, 218 
Hauteville, De, 44, 64 
Hawke, 175 

Heidelberg, 108, 155, 178 
Heidenmauer, 96 

Emperors of Germany — 

Heinrich I., the "Fowler," 38, 

etc., 48, 187 
Heinrich II., the "Saint" or 
the "Lame," 42 



Heinrich III., the Black, 43, 

etc. 
Heinrich IV., 47, etc. 
Heinrich V., 50, 52, etc. 
- Heinrich VI., 64 to 67, 70 
Heinrich VII., 95, 97 
Heinrich II., the Proud of Bavaria, 

55. 57. 59 
Heinrich III., the Lion, of Bavaria, 

57, 59 to 63, 68 
Heinrich, son of Frederic II., 70, 

72 
Hela, 6 

Helena, St., 226 
Hellia, 6 

Helvetic Confederation, 217 
Henri II., France, 135, 136 
Henri of Castile, 81 
Henri III., France, 108 
Henri IV., Navarre, 109 
Henry I., England, 54 
Henry III., England, 78 
Henry VIII., England, 113, 115, 

119 
Henry the Pious, Duke of Silesia, 

73 
Hen of Honorius, 16 
Hermann "the Deliverer," 3, 11, 

12, 31 
Hermann of Swabia, 41 
Hermannsaule, 31 
Hermanric, 15 
Hertha, 6 
Heruli, 20 
Hesse, 3, 128, 133, 135, 136, 174, 

216, 228 
Hesse-Cassel, 26, 238 
Hesse-Nassau, 238 
Hesse-Darmstadt, 247 
Hildebrand. (See Gregory VII.) 
Hindoos, i 
Hochkirch, 201 
Hochstadt, 161 
Hofer, 218 

Hohenburg, Marquis of, 77 
Hohenfriedburg, 200 
Hohenlinden, 212 
Hohenstaufen Line, 57, etc., 83, 

92, 95 to 184 
HohenzoUern, 102, io8,'i9o to end 



3IO 



INDEX. 



Holland, 145, 153, 157, 161, 193, 

194, 203, 214, 217, 219, 231, 237 

to 239 
Holstein, 3, 171, 233 
Holy Alliance (1815), 207, 228, 230 
Holy Roman Empire, 34, 37, 42, 

231 
Homer, 30 

Honorius, Emperor, 16 
Honorius, Pope, 70, 71 
Horace, 30 

Hortense Beauharnais, 226 
Horuc, 120 
Hubertsburg, 175, 201 
Hudson's Bay, 162 
Huguenots, 108, 131 
Hulda, 6 g| " 

Hundred, 8 
Hundred Days, 224 
Hungarian Diet, 168 
Hungarians, 38, 39, 42, 156 
Hungary, 18, 19, 73, 85, 90, 102, 

114, 119, 120, 129, 131, 233 
Hunniades (John), 106 
Huns, 2, 15, 18, 19, 34, 73, 89 
Huss (John), 90, 103 to 105, 122, 

126 
Hussinetz, 103 
Hussite Wars, 102 to 105, 125 



Iliad, 89 
Images, 30 

Imperial Diet, 248, 258 
India, 107, 176, 212 
Indo-European, i 
Indulgences, 103, 124 
Informal League, 249 
Innocent II., Pope, 55 
Innocent III., Pope, 68, 70, 90 
Innocent IV., Pope 73, 77 
Innsbruck, 112, 135 
Inquisition, 74, 142 
Insurance Legislation, 261 
Interim, 134 
Interregnum, 87-91, 106 
Invalides Church, 226 
Investiture, 45, 48, 52, etc. 
Ionian Islands, 212 
Irene (Emp.), 28 



Iron Crown, 28, 42, 106 
Isabella I. of Spain, 112 
Isabella II. of Spain, 240 
Istria, 212, 213 
Italy, 3, etc., 60, 71, 90, 157, 179, 

211, 212, 233, 234 
Italian language, 70 

J. 

Jagellon, 163 

James V. Scotland, 119 

James VI. Scotland, 1. England, 
142 

James II. England, 161 

James III. England, 161 

Janissaries, 120 

Jean de Brienne, 71, 72 

Jena, 205, 215, 222, 228 

Jerome of Prague, 103 

Jerusalem, 64, 71, 74, 188 

Jesuits, 156, 158 

Jews, 177 

Joachim I. of Brandenburg, 192 

Joachim II. of Brandenburg, 192 

Joachim Frederic of Branden- 
burg, 192 

Johann of Hapsburg, 95 

Johann of Bohemia (blind) 97 

Johann III., Elect. Prussia, 192 

Johann George, Elect. Prussia, 192 

Johann Sigismund, 192 

Johann Trocznow, 104 

John of England, 70 

John XXIIL, Pope, 103 

John, Archduke of Austria, 234 

John Hunniades, 106 

John Frederic of Saxony, 133, 136 

John of Werth, 152 

Jongleurs, 89 

Jordano (Count), 66 

Josephine, 218, 223, 226 

Joseph (Pere), 147 

Joseph I., Emperor, 161, 165 

Joseph II., Emperor, 175 to 180 

Jossus, lOI 

Jourdan (Gen.), 203, 211 

Juana of Castile, 108, 112, 113, 
114 

Judges, 8 

Julius Caesar, 11 



INDEX. 



311 



Jumieges (Abbey of), 33 

Junker Georg, 127 

Junot, 216 

Jura, 21 

Justinian, 73 

Just, San, 137 

Jutes, 3 

Jutland, 3, 28 

Jutta, 35 

K. 

Kainardji, 183 

Kaiser Wilhelm, 245 

Kalisch, 207 

Karlomann, 28 

Kara Mustafa, 156 

Katte, Lieutenant, 198 

Kaunitz (Prince), 171 

Keltic Race, i, 2 

Kelts, I, 2 

Kesseldorf, 200 

Khalif, 32 

Kilian of Warzburg, 25 

King of Rome, 219 

King of the Romans, 67, 69, 70, 

72, 73, 78, 104, 118, 130, 175 
Kloster-Seven, 173, 174 
Knighthood, 39 
Knights of Malta, 119 
Knights. (See Teutonic) 
Knox (John), 131 
Koln, 47, 86, 87, 90, 98, loi, 153 
Kolberg, 86 
Kolin, 173, 201 

Konigsberg, 86, 188, 192, 196, 205 
Koniggratz, 238 
Kosciusko, 184 
Kotzebue, 228 
Kremlin, 219 
Kulm, 188 

Kulterkampf, The, 250 
Kunersdorf, 201 
Kyflfhauser Mountains, 65 



Ladislas I., Bohemia, 59 
Ladislas, Naples, 103 
Landsknechte, iii 
Landgraf, 29, 128, 133, 135, 136 



Language, i, 8, 29, 36, 70, 89, 90, 

104, 155, 168, 187 
Lannoy, 117 
Laon, 119 

Lateran Council, 53 
Latin Race, i, 12 
Latin Scriptures, 34 
Lausanne, 91 
Lautrec, 116 

League of Augsburg (1686), 157 
League of Lombardy (1167), 61, 

62, 69, 72 
League of Nuremberg (1531), 130 
League of Schmalkalde (1531), 

League of Tuscany, 68 

Lech, 149 

Lechfelde, 42 

Lefevre, 131 

Leidrad of Lyons, 30 

Leipsic, 108, 125, 149, 150, 152, 

17s, 222 
Legnano, 63 
Leo I., Pope, 19 
Leo III., Pope, 34 
Leo IX., Pope, 44 to 46 
Leo X., Pope, 115, 124 
Leopold L, Markgraf of Austria, 

57 
Leopold I. of Austria, 96, 97 
Leopold 11. or III. of Austria, 100 
Leopold V. or I., Duke of Austria, 

65 
Leopold I., Emperor, 155 to 161, 

203 
Leopold II., Emperor, 180, 194 
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, 231 
Leopold of Hohenzollem, 240 
Letter post, 1 1 1 
Leu then, 174, 201 
Liege, 50 
Liegnitz, 73 
Lieutenant, Lord, 8 
Ligurian Republic, 212 
Ligny, 224 
Lintz, 156 
Lithuanians, 2 
Lithuania, 184, 189 
Little Russia, 189 
Livonia, 131 



312 



INDEX. 



Loire, 17, 244 

Lombards, 3, 20, 25, 28, etc., 77 

Lombardy, 6, 30, 60, 72, 76, 212, 

231 
London, 207, 237 
Loria, De (Gen.), 84 
Lorraine, 35, 49, 135, 158, 164 
Lorraine, Charles, Duke of, 156 
Lords, 8 
Losowitz, 172 
Lothaire I., Emperor, 35 
Lothaire II., Emperor, 55 
Lothaire, King of Italy, 35, 42 
Louis d'Orleans, 106 
Emperors — 

Ludwig or Louis I., le Debon- 

naire, or the Pious, 35, 90 
Ludwig or Louis II., the 

German, 36 
Ludwig or Louis III., the 

Stammerer, 36 
Ludwig or Louis the Blind, 

36 
Ludwig or Louis (IV.?) the 

Child, 37 
Ludwig or Louis IV., von 
Wittelsbach of Bavaria, 96 
to 98, 106, 189 
Ludwig, Elec. of Bavaria, 81 
Ludwig I., Hungary, 102 
Ludwig II., Hungary, 112, 119 
Ludwig I., Brandenburg, 189 
Ludwig II., Brandenburg, 189 
Kings of France — 

Louis IX., the Saint, 74, 79 
Louis XIV., 141, 154, 156, 
157, 158, 160, 161, 165, 247 
Louis XV., 158, 165, 171, 194 
Louis XVI., 158, 203, 224 
Louis XVIIL, 224 
Louis Philippe, 233 
Louis Napoleon, (See Napo- 
leon) 
Lotharingia, 35 
Louis of Baden, 157 
Low Countries, 137 
Ltlbeck, 86, 87, 143, 219, 259 
Lucca, 78 
Lucera, 71, 77, 79 
Luisa, Duchess Brandenburg, 194 



Luise, Queen of Prussia, 204, 206, 

236 
Luneville, 180, 212 
Lupus, 33 
Lusatia, 98 
Luther (Martin), 90, 112, 122 to 

134 
Luttich or Liege, 50 
Liitzen, 150, 221 
Luxemburg, 91 
Lyons, 29, 74, 90 

M. 

Maas, 51 

Macdonald, Marshal, 222 

MacMahon, 243 

Madrid, 117 

Magdeburg, 86, 123, 135, 148, 149, 

i53> 194, 206 
Magna Graecia, 28, 41 
Magyars, 22, 41, 131, 168 
Main, 23, 211, 239 
Mainz, 26, 50, 87, 91, 92, 98 
Maires du Palais, 24 
Malta, 119 
Malplaquet, 161 
Manfred, 76 to 80, 83 
Mansfeld, 122 

Mansfeld, Ernest von, 143, 144 
Manteuffel, 244 
Mantua, 72, 211 
Marches, 29, 33, 187 
Marches, Spain, 32 
Marches, Ancona, 69 
Marchese, 29 
Marcomanni, 3 
Marcus Aurelius, Emp., 14 
Marengo, 212, 216 
Margaret Lindemann, 122 
Maria Louisa, Archduch., 218, 

223, 226 
Maria Bianca, Sforza, in 
Maria Theresa, Austria, 158, 164 

to 182, 199 to 202, 231 
Maria Theresa, Spain, 160 
Marie Leczinski, 163 
Marienburg, 188 
Mariner's Compass, 87, 107 
Marius, 10, 11 



INDEX. 



313 



Markgraf, 29, 40, 98, 102, 108, 188, 

189, 200 
Marlborough, 161 
Marmont, 223 
Mars la Tour, 243 
Marseilles, 79, 116 
Martel, Charles, 24 
Martin's Wall, in 
Mary of Hungary, 102 
Mary of Burgundy, 107, 108, no, 

Mary Tudor, 109, 142 
Marzfeld, 93 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 108 
Matilda of Tuscany, 49, 50, 55, 

63, 66, 68, 69, 70, 91 
Matthias, Emperor, 139, 143 
Matthias Corvinus. 106 
Maude of England (Matilda), 54 
Maurice of Saxony, 133, 135 
Maurice of Saxony (of Poland), 

168 
Mayence. (See Mainz) 
Max Piccolomini, 143, 152 
Maximilian Joseph, 169, 178 
Maximilian I., 107 to 113, 124, 125 
Maximilian II., 138 
Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, 143, 

144, 145, 152 
Maximus, Emperor, Rome, 19 
Mecklenburg, 148, 150 
Mecklenburg, Duke of, 2, 128, 146 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 205 
Medici, 115, 118 
Medicine, 87 
Mediterranean, 35, 82, 119, 212, 

223 
Meinen, 216 

Melancthon, 124, etc., 129, 133 
Memel, 205 
Merchandise, 86, 100 
Mercy, 152 
Merovingians, 25 
Merseburg, 40 
Messina, 84 

Metz, 32, 135, 136, 152, 242, 243 
Mexico, 112 

Migration of the Nations, 21, 187 
Milan, 16, 42, 72, 76, in, 115, 

119, 137, 166, 211 



Milan (Sieges), 60 to 63 

Miltitz, 125 

Minden, 194 

Minnesingers, 89 

Minorca, 162, 175 

Modena, 212 

Moesia, 15 

Mohammedans, 24, 71, 88 

Mohatz, 119 

Moldavia, 2, 14, 182 

Molvitz, 166, 199 

Monasteries, 30, 137, 179 

Mongols, 22 

Monreale, 84 

Monteferrato, 62 

Morat, 94 

Moravia, 98, loi, 145 

Mora, 122 

Morea, 157, 182 

Moreau (Gen.), 211, 213 

Morgarten, 96, 100 

Moscow, 219, 220 

Moselle, 242 

Miihlberg, 133 

Miihldorf, 96 

Munich, 89, 108, 150, 168, 178 

Miinster, 154 

Murat, 214, 217 

Music, 30 



N. 



Naples, 7I; 76, 77, 80, 82, 84, 115, 

214 
Napoleon I., Bonaparte, 174, 205 

to 227 
Napoleon II., Duke of Reichstadt, 

219, 226 
Napoleon III., Louis, 226, 234, 

240, 244 
Nassau, 95, 239 
National Assembly, 9, 234 
National Congress, 231 
National Defence, 244 
Natural Science, 87 
Naval Bill, 264 
Navarre, 32, 115 
Navigation, 87 
Narvaez, 240 
Nelson, 212, 214 



314 



INDEX. 



Netherlands, 35, 108, no, 112, 

114, 141, 161, 178, 180 
Netz, 201 
Neuchatel, 131 
Nicholas I., Czar, 184 
Nicholas Breakspear. (See Adrian 

IV.) 
Nicholas II., Pope, 46 
Nicholas V., Pope, 106 
Nicholas von Hussinec, 104 
Nibelungenlied, 89 
Niemen, 184 
Nordmark, 40, 187 
Normans, 37, 44, 48, 53, 83 
Northmen, 3, 34 

North German Confederation, 247 
North Germany, 10 
North Sea, 262 
Norway, 3, 37, 142, 231 
Nova Scotia, 162 
Nuremberg, 87, 130, 190 
Nutcelle, 26 
Nutshalling, 26 



O. 



Obelisk, 49 

Oder, 193 

Odoacer, 20 

Oesterreich, 29, 42 

Oldenburg, 219 

Orcan, 120 

Order of Merit, 239 

Order of Maria Theresa, 1 73 

Organists, 30 

Orleans, 244 

Osnabruck, 29, 154 

Ostrogoths, 2, 15, 20, 21, etc. 
Emperors — 

Otto I., the Great, 41, etc. 
Otto II., the Bloody, 42 
Otto III., the Red, 42 
Otto IV., "Superb," of Bruns- 
wick, 68, 69, 70 

Otto the Sluggard, 189 

Otto von Wittelsbach, 64 

Ottocar II. of Bohemia, 81, 93 

Ottoman Empire 22, 107, 157, 
180, 229, 253 

Oudenarde, 161 



Oxenstiern, 143, 152 

P. 

Padua, 61, 72 

Palatine, 29, 68, 98, 143 to 145, 153 

Palatinate, Upper, 108, 145, 153, 

154, 178 

Palatinate, Lower, 108, 145, 153, 

155, 178, 231, 242 
Palermo, 78, 83 
Palestine, 65, 70, 71, 188 
Palladines, de (Aurelle, Gen.), 244 
Pandours, 168 

Pannonia, 29 

Papal States, 217 

Papal Crusade, 74 

Paris, 23, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 

230, 241, 244 
Parma, 164 
Partition of Poland, 180 to 184, 

201, 204, 216 
Pascal II., 52 
Paschase Ratbert, 90 
Passau, 90, 136 
Patriarchs, 44, 45 
Paul the Deacon, 30 
Paul III., Pope, 132 
Pavia, 29, 60, 62, 117 
Payerne, 94 
Pays de Vaud, 93 
Peace of Augsburg (1555), 144 
Peace of Breslau (1742), 169, 200 
Peace of Campo Formio (1797), 

212 
Peace of Carlo witz (1699) 15 
Peace of Crespy (1544), 119, 132 
Peace of Frankfort (1871), 244 
Peace of Hubertsburg (1763), 175, 

201 
Peace of Kainardji (1774), 183 
Peace of Paris (1763), 175 
Peace of Presburg (1805), 213, 214 
Peace of Ryswick (1697), 157 
Peace of Teschen (1779), 178 
Peace of Tilsit (1806), 216 
Peace of Westphalia (1648), 152 
Peasants' War, 127 
Pedro of Aragon, 78, 84 
Peninsular War, 217, 218 
Pepin d'Heristhal, 24 



INDEX. 



3^5 



Pepin le ''Bref," 24, 28 

Pepin, son of Charlemagne, 34, 35 

Persia, i 

Peru, 112 

Pescara, 117 

Peter the Great, 158 

Peter III., Russia, 175, 201 

Peter's, St., Church, 34, 60 

Petersburg, 170 

Pfalzburg, 244 

Phih'ppe, Auguste, 64, 70 

PhiHppe of Anjou. (See PhiHp V. 

of Spain.) 
PhiHp I., Spain, 108, no, 112, 113, 

114 
PhiHp II., Spain, 134, 137, 141, 

142 
PhiHp v., Spain, 160, 161, 166 
PhiHp of Swabia, 66, 68 
PhiHp of Hesse, 128, 133 
PhiHppists, 133 
PhiHpsburg, 152 
Piccolomini, Max, 143, 152 
Pichegru (Gen.), 203, 213 
Piedmont, 16, 90, 116, 231 
Pietro of Pisa, 29 
Pima, 172, 173 
Pisa, 61, 81, 82, 85 
Pitt (Wihiam), 169, 172, 174, 215 
Pius VI., Pope, 212 
Pius VII., Pope, 213, 217 
Plebiscite, 241 
Po, river, 11, 211 
Pocock, 175 , • 

Podesta, 60 

Podiebrad, George, 106 
Podolia, 184, 189 
Poland, 38, 41, 59, 73, 85, 90, 131, 

142, 157, 158, 163, 180 to 184, 

187 to 192, 201, 216, 233 
Poles, 168, 201 
Pomerania, 146, 148, 152, 153, 159, 

175. 194, 231 
Pompadour, Madame de, 171 
Portugal, 16, 21, 32, 161, 216 
Posen, 184, 231 
Potatoes, 194 
Potsdam Regiment, 196 
Potsdam, 202 
Praga, 184 



Pragmatic Sanction of Ludwig 

IV., 97, 106 
Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI., 

165, 167, 168, 199, 231 
Prague, 98, 100, 103, 104, 139, 143, 

144, 145. 146, 167, 169, 173, 200, 

201 
Prakob the Great, 105 
Prakob the Little, 105 
Precious Stones, 87 
Presburg, 120, 168, 213, 214 
President Roosevelt, 264 
Priests, 8 
Prince Fritz, 242 
Prince Henry, 262 
Prince Hohenlohe, 250 
Prince Imperial, 242 
Prince Luitpold of Bavaria, 246 
Prince Poniatowski, 222 
Printing, 107 

"Protestant," 90, 129, 133 
Protestant Union, 130 
Provence, 79 
Provencals, 80, 84 
Province, 8 
Prussia, 40, 57, 102, 108. 131, 158, 

184, 187 to end. 
Prussian Kingdom, 247 
Ptolemais, 64 
Pyrenees, 17, 24, 32, 160 

Q- 

Quatre Bras, 224 
Queen Victoria, 64 

R. 

Raab, 34 

Ramillies, 161 

Rastadt, 162 

Ratisbon, 146 

Ravaillac, 109 

Ravenna, 25 

Raymond of Toulouse, 79 

Red Hat, 73 

Red Prince, 238, 242, 243, 244 

Reconciliation, 260 

Reformation, 90, 107, 112, 122 to 

137 
Reggio, 49 
Reichstadt, Duke of, 218, 219, 226 



3i6 



INDEX. 



Reichstag, i68, 248, 24^ 250, 254, 

261 
Reichsrath, 247 

Reign of William II., 258 to 265 
Relations with other Powers, 263 
Religious Peace, Nuremberg 

(1532), 130 
Religious Peace, Augsburg (1555), 

136 
Renaissance, 107 
Reuchlin, 122, 124 
Rheims, 244 
Rhenish League, 100 
Rhine, 2, 3, 30, etc., 86, 153, 158, 

t8o, 203, 207 
Rhodes, 119 
Rhone, 2 
Richard I. of England, Coeur de 

Lion, 64, 65, 66 
Richard II. of England, 103 
Richard, Duke of Cornwall, 77 
Richelieu, 147, 152, 173 
Ripurian Franks, 23 
Ring, 34 
Rivoli, 211 
Roads, 31, 226 
Robber Knights, 43, 86, 92 
Robert Guiscard, 48 
Robert of Flanders, 79, 83 
Rochefort, 226 
Rodolf of Swabia, 49 
Rodolf L, Hapsburg, Emp., 91 to 

95 
Rodolf IL, Emperor, 139 
Rodolf III. of Burgundy, 43 
Roger of Sicily, 66 
Roger de Loria, 84 
Roger Bacon, 88 
Rogge, 247 
Rois Faineants, 24 
Roland (Rutland), 28, s^, 89 
Roman Catholics, 250 
Romance Languages, 89, 90 
Romanic Language, 168 
Romagna, 212 
Romances, ^^ 
Rome (Hen), 16; Siege of Rome, 

50, 53, 60, 118, 217 
Rome, Decline, 10, 14. et seq. 
Romulus Augustulus, 20 



Roncesvalles, 28, Tfi 

Roon, 238, 247, 256 

Rosbach, 173, 201 

Rosny, 109 

Rostock, 86 

Rotterdam, 122 

Roxelana, 121 

Rufl&nus, 16 

Rugen, 152 

Rupert, St., 25 

Rupert (Count Palatine), Emp., 

loi, 103, 190 
Russia, 73, 87, 142, 157, 163, 175 

to 184, 200 to 207, 219, 220 
Ruthenian Languages, 168 
Ryswick, 157 

S. 

Saale, 23 

Saarbrucken, 242 

Sadowa, 238 

Saint Quentin, 244 

Saint Steifan, 168 

Saint Just, 137 

Saladin, 64 

Salerno, 50 

Saleph or Caleph, 64 

Salique Franks, Salic, 23, 43 

Sand, 228 

San Remo, 255 

Sanscrit, i 

Sans Souci, 202, 206 

Saracens, 24, 64, 70, 71, 74, 77, 87 

Saragossa, 32 

Sardinia, 28, 72, 112, 114, 162, 164, 

167, 231 
Savona, 45, 217 
Savonarola, 122 
Savoy, 62, 119, 156, 158, 161 
Savoy, Victor, Duke of, 162 
Saxe-Weimar, 152 
Saxons, 3, 14, 21, etc. 
Saxon Dynasty, 38, etc. 
Saxony, 57, 59, 63, 64, 98, 108, 142, 

200, 205, 214, 216, 231, 238 
Scandinavia, 2, 142 
Scandinavians, 3, 89 
Scheldt, 161 
Schiller, 144 
Schleswig 3, 233, 237 to 239 



INDEX. 



317 



Schmalkalde. (See League) 

Schwabischen Bund, too 

Schwarzerde, 124 

Schweitz, 95 

Schweppermann, Siegfried von, 96 

Schwcrin (Gen.), 200 

Science, 15, 87, 155 

Sclavonians, i, 2, 187 

Sclavs, 28, 33, 103, 168 

Scythians, 18 

S^dan, 243 

Semitic Race, i 

Sempach, 100 

Serfs, 8, 88, 197 

Sesia, 116 

Seven Weeks' War, 238, 239 

Seven Years' War, 158, 170 to 176, 

181, 201 
Sforza (Maria Bianca), iii 
Shields 9, 69 
Sicilies (Two), 64, 66, 68, 69, 70, 

112, 114 
Sicilian Vespers, 83, 92 
Sicily, 44, 64, 74, 76, 78, 82, 162, 

.233 
Siebenbiirgen, 14 

Siena, 81 

Sigismund of Luxemburg, loi to 

106, 190 
Sigismund of Poland, 163 
Silesia, 73, 98, 139, 145, 159, 166, 

169, 171, 174, 199 to 201 
Silesian War (i),^ 199 
Silesian War (2), 200 
Silesian War (3), 200 to 202 
Simony, 44, 46, 48 
Snow King, 143, 148 
Sobieski (John), 156, 163, 181 
Socialism, 252 
Solyman the Turk, 119 to 121, 130, 

138 
Sophia Elizabeth, 196 
Soubise (Marshal), 173 
Souvaroff, 184 
Spain, 2, 16, 17, 32, 90, 107, 112, 

129, 157 to 162, 217, 233, 240 
Spaniards, 28, 166 
Spandau, 188 
Specbacher, 218 
Speier or Spires, 51, 94, 129, 155 



Spree, 193 

Stadtholder, 203 

Standard, 34 

Stanislas Leczinski, 163, 165 

Stanislas Poniatowski, 181, 184 

Staremberg (Count von), 156 

States of the Church. 25, 212 

Stauffacher, 95 

Steflfan the Pious, 42, 168 

Steinmetz (Gen.), •42, 243 

Stettin, 86, 152 

Stilicho, 16 

Stone of the Swede, 150, 221 

Stralsund, 86, 146, 152 

Strasburg, 152, 154, 244 

Stuttgart, 234 

Succession, Spanish, 160 to 162 

Succession, Polish, 163, 164 

Succession, Austrian, 165 to 169 

Succession, Palatinate, 178 

Styria, 93, 108, 114, 131 

Suevi, 2. (See Swabians), 16, 21 

Sully, 109 

Sultan, 70, 74, 79, 182 

Sun Worship, 6 

Supremacy of Pope, 45, 90 

Susa, 48, 62 

Swabia, 2, 16, 39, 68, 77, 81, 85, 

91, 108 
Swabians, 2, 16, 21, etc., 191 
Swabian League, 100 
Swabian Line, 57 
Sweden, 3, 37, 86, 131, 142, 152, 

157, 158, 194, 217, 231 
Swedish Period, 143, 148 
Swiss Cantons, 95, 153, 217 
Swiss Confederation, 95 
Switzerland, 2, 25, 43, 91, 131, 193, 

244 
Sylvester III., Pope, 43 
Syriac Scriptures, 34 
Syria, 71, 74 
Szigeth, 138 



Tabor, 105 

Taborites, 105 

Tagliacozzo, 82 

Tancred de Hauteville, 44, 66 



318 



INDEX. 



Tannenberg, 189 

Tartars, 18, ig, 28 

Taxes, 33 

Telescopes, 88 

Temeswar, 157 

Teschen, 178 

Tetsel, 124 

Teutqberger Forest, 12 

Teutobod, 11 

Teutons, i, 2, 4, 10, ir, 12, 25, 

28, 87, 188 
Teutonic Knights, 128, 131, 188 

to 192, 217 
Theodoric, 20 
Theodosius, 15, 16 
Theodulph the Goth, 30 
Thermal Baths, 32 
Thirty Years' War, 140 to 153, 

193. 194 
Thor, 6 

Thorn, 188, 201 
Thrace, 15 
Thun, 25 
Thurgau, 81 

Thuringia, 2, 26, 49, 122, 136, 173 
Thurn and Taxis, in 
Thusnelda, 13 
Tiber, 55, 60 
Tilly, 143, 145, 148, 149 
Tilsit, 206, 216 
Toledo, 17 
Torstenson, 143, 152 
Tortona, 60 
Toul, 135, 152, 244 
Toulouse, 16 
Tournay, 169 
Tours, 24, 29, 90 
Trafalgar, 214 
Trajan, Emp., 14 
Translation of Scriptures, 15, 34, 

90, 127, 128, 179 
Transubstantiation, 90 
Transylvania, 14, 131 
Trausnitz, 97 

Treaty of Augsburg (1555), 144 
Treaty of Breslau (1742), 169, 200 
Treaty of Cambrai (1529), 118 
Treaty of Constance (1183), 63 
Treaty of Dresden (1745), 169, 200 
Treaty of Kalisch (1813), 207 



Treaty of Liibeck (1629), 143, 146 
Treaty of Luneville (1801), 180 
Treaty of Madrid (1526), 117 
Treaty of Nuremberg (1531), 130 
Treaty of Paris (1763), (1815), 175, 

230 
Treaty of Passau (1552), 136 
Treaty of Prague (1635), 143 
Treaty of Prague (1866), 239 
Treaty of Rastadt (1714), 162 
Treaty of Tilsit (1807), 216 
Treaty of Utrecht (171 3), 162, 163, 

196 
Treaty of Verdun, 35 
Treaty of Versailles, 171 
Treaty of Vienna (1738), 164 
Treaty of Vienna (1809), 218 
Treaty of Vienna (1815), 227 
Treaty of Westphalia (1648), 100, 

136, 143, 152, 153, 156, 173, 
Treves (Trier), 36, 90, 98 
Treviso, 61 

Triple Alliance,';i94, 249, 253 
Troubadours, 89 
Truce of God, 43 
Tubingen, 122, 124 
Tuileries, 224 
Tunis, 120, 121 
Turcomans or Turks, 22, 106, 112, 

115, 119 to 121, 129, 130, 156, 

178, 182, 188, 222 
Turenne, 143, 152 
Turin, 90, 161 
Turkey, 22, 157, 158, 216 
Tuscany, 45, 49, 50, 55, 59, 78, 

164, 167 
Two'i.Sicilies, 64, 66, 68, 69, 70, 78, 

J12, 114, 137, 138, 158 
Tyre, 64 
Tyrol, 56, 108, no, 114, 135, 168, 

213, 218 

U. 

Ukase, 184 

Ukraine, 189 

Ulfilas, 15 

Ulrich der Schmidt, 95 ^ 

Ulrich von Hiitten, 122 

Unified Germany, 246 to 257 

Union of the States, 246 



INDEX. 



319 



United States of America, 201 
Universities, 87, 98, 103, 123, 192, 

228 
Unterwalden, 95 
Urban IV., 78 
Ural Mountains, 18 
Uri, 95 
Utrecht, 162, 163, 196 



V. 

Valla, Lorenzo, 122 

Valdo, Peter, 90 

Valens, 15 

Vandals, 2, 19, 21, etc. 

Vandalusia, 2 

Varus, 12, 13, 31 

Varsovie. (See Warsaw) 

Vasa, 131, 163, 170 

Vaudois, 90, 103, 105, 122 

Venedi, 187 

Venetians, 72 

Venetian Republic, 231 

Venezuela, 263 

Venice, 19, 61, 157, 212, 213 

Verdun, 35, 135, 152, 244 

Verden, 152 

Verona, 11, 61 

Versailles, 171, 244, 246, 247 

Vicar of the Empire, 234 

Vicenza, 61, 72 

Victor, Duke of Savoy, 162 

Vienna, 93, 97, iii, 120, 138, 156, 

166, 167, 207, 212, 218, 224, 

227 
Vindobona, 14 

Visigoths, 2, 15, 16, 19, 21, 34 
Vistula, 4, 188 
Viterbo, 81 
Volga, 18, 19 
Volhynia, 184 
Volkerwanderung, 21 
Volkerverein, 14 
Voltaire, 170, 173, 198, 202 
Von Bliren, Frederic, 49 
Von Caprivi (Gen.), 260 
Von Moltke, 242, 247, 256, 258, 

265 
Vosges, 242 



W. 

Wagram, 218 

Waiblingen. (See Ghibellines') 

Waivode, 42 

Waldemar, 86 

Walhalla, 6 

Wallachia, 2, 14, 182 

Wallenstein, 143, 146 to 152 

Walpole, 163, 169 

Walter Fiirst, 95 

Warsaw or Varsovie, 181, 184, 216, 

231 
War of Succession, Austrian, 165 

to 169 
War of Succession, Polish, 163 to 

164 
War of Succession, Spanish, 160 

to 162, 196 
Wartburg, 127 
Warzburg, 25 
Washington, 158, 184 
Waterloo, 225 
Wehr-manner, 4 
Weiber-treue, 58 
Weiner-Neustadt, 112 
Weinsberg, 58 
Weissenburg, 242 
Welf. (See Guelph), 35 
Wellington, 206, 220, 224, 225 
Wels, 120 
Wenceslas IV., 93 
Wenceslas V., 98 
Wenceslas VI., the Drunkard, 100 

to 103, 104, 190 
Wends, 38, 187 
Werder, von, 244 
Werth, John of, 152 
Westphalia, 145, 216 
Westphalia, Treaty of, 100, 136, 

i43> 152, 153' 156, 173' 194 
White Mountain, 144 
WiclifF, 103, 105, 122 
Wilhelm Tell, 95 
Wilhelmshohe, 243 
Wilibrod, 25 

William III. of Apulia, 66 
William of Orange, 157 
Wilham III. of England, 160, 161 



320 



INDEX. 



William IV., Stadtholder of Hol- 
land, 203 

William I., Emperor, 206, 207, 236 
to 257 

William II., Emperor, 258 to end 

Winfred, 26 

Winter King, 143, 144 

Winkelried, Arnold von, 95, 105 

Wismar, 86, 152 

Witekind, 28, 32, etc. 

Wittelsbach, 96, 108, 178 

Wittelsbach, Otto von, 64 

Wittemberg, 108, 123, 125, 126, 
127, 128 

Wodin, 6 

Wolsey, 115 

Worms, 53, 126, 155 

Worship, 250 

Worship of Sun, etc., 6 

Worship of Images, 30, 89, 90 

Worth, 242 

Wrangel (Adm.), 152 



Writing, 30 

Wiirtemberg, 214, 238, 241, 247 

Winbercht, Abbott, 26 



Yolande of Jerusalem, 71 
York, 30 



Zacharias, Pope, 25 

Zend, I 

Ziska, 104, 105 

Zollverein, 232 

Zorndorf, 201 

Zrinyi, 138 

Ziilpich, 23 

Zurich, 131 

Zwingli, 131 

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